Christopher David Fletcher, ‘The Language of Manhood: Strength, Violence and Honour’ in Richard II:
Manhood, Youth and Politics, 1377-99, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, c2008), pp.25-44
- youth, vulnerability, acceptance of bad counsel, desire to please led to ‘unmanly reputation’ - 25
- Language of manhood, which was so often used by middle english speakers through terms such as
manhood, manly etc. is rarely seen in contemporary/post-death descriptions of Richard II
- Language is significant as the way in which a particular word of phrase is employed carries just as much
meaning as the word itself
- In middle english ‘manhood’ was stressed as being a solely adult-male term
- Associations of the word man can in some cases include women as well with ’man’ being a collective
term for the adult human population
- In terms of religious interpretation manhood could be taken as a reference to human flesh, which Christ
took on for the sake of humanity
- Although it can be taken as a neutral term for all of humanity there are examples of it being used
alongside the word woman, almost always before, to denote perhaps the hierarchical importance of
different members of society
- Idea of a ‘man’ can also be seen as an adult who was raised in virtue
- Manly is also used as an adverb in middle english, referring to ‘vigorous or speedy activities or
individuals’ - 28
- This demonstrates the idea of a ‘man’ being defined by a certain set of characteristics rather than
their sex
- Manhood is most strongly associated with strength and courage in battle
- ‘Sometimes, part of the meaning of ‘manship’ seems to be the duty owed to a lord by his men’ - 30
- Duty being a defining characteristic of the ‘man’
- There is some association with praying for the lords protection being manly
- Frequently described opposition between manliness and shame
- ‘On an individual level and on a level of lordship, manhood must be held up by providing a consistent,
energetic response to a threat, when the threat carries with it the dual dangers of death or shameful
defeat’ - 35
- Again the idea of shame being the consequence for lack of manhood is shown here and seems to
be a recurring theme
- Was the deterrent of shame the best way of encouraging manly behaviour as it would eliminate
those who were weak from putting themselves forwarding the military etc.
- The idea that manhood consists of strength and honour is a consistent theme across many texts fro
different contexts, for example religious texts or military accounts
- Manliness is defined in being able to overcome ‘the devil, the flesh and the world’ - 37
- Essentially being able to overcome temptations of sin
- King was part of a social class who held manhood and manliness in the highest esteem
- However many definitions of manhood seem to refer to adult males only, therefore making it impossible
for a ten year old king to display these characteristics
- The argument against his manliness is typically grounded in his youth with some texts not referring to
his military honour or strength
- Where his timidity is mentioned it is with regards to his wavering morals rather than his military
weakness
- It is odd that contemporaries did not criticise his conduct in war, given that he later developed a
reputation for ‘unwarlike effeminacy’ - 43
- His values aligned with those 'implicit in the late medieval language of manhood’ - 43
Manhood, Youth and Politics, 1377-99, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, c2008), pp.25-44
- youth, vulnerability, acceptance of bad counsel, desire to please led to ‘unmanly reputation’ - 25
- Language of manhood, which was so often used by middle english speakers through terms such as
manhood, manly etc. is rarely seen in contemporary/post-death descriptions of Richard II
- Language is significant as the way in which a particular word of phrase is employed carries just as much
meaning as the word itself
- In middle english ‘manhood’ was stressed as being a solely adult-male term
- Associations of the word man can in some cases include women as well with ’man’ being a collective
term for the adult human population
- In terms of religious interpretation manhood could be taken as a reference to human flesh, which Christ
took on for the sake of humanity
- Although it can be taken as a neutral term for all of humanity there are examples of it being used
alongside the word woman, almost always before, to denote perhaps the hierarchical importance of
different members of society
- Idea of a ‘man’ can also be seen as an adult who was raised in virtue
- Manly is also used as an adverb in middle english, referring to ‘vigorous or speedy activities or
individuals’ - 28
- This demonstrates the idea of a ‘man’ being defined by a certain set of characteristics rather than
their sex
- Manhood is most strongly associated with strength and courage in battle
- ‘Sometimes, part of the meaning of ‘manship’ seems to be the duty owed to a lord by his men’ - 30
- Duty being a defining characteristic of the ‘man’
- There is some association with praying for the lords protection being manly
- Frequently described opposition between manliness and shame
- ‘On an individual level and on a level of lordship, manhood must be held up by providing a consistent,
energetic response to a threat, when the threat carries with it the dual dangers of death or shameful
defeat’ - 35
- Again the idea of shame being the consequence for lack of manhood is shown here and seems to
be a recurring theme
- Was the deterrent of shame the best way of encouraging manly behaviour as it would eliminate
those who were weak from putting themselves forwarding the military etc.
- The idea that manhood consists of strength and honour is a consistent theme across many texts fro
different contexts, for example religious texts or military accounts
- Manliness is defined in being able to overcome ‘the devil, the flesh and the world’ - 37
- Essentially being able to overcome temptations of sin
- King was part of a social class who held manhood and manliness in the highest esteem
- However many definitions of manhood seem to refer to adult males only, therefore making it impossible
for a ten year old king to display these characteristics
- The argument against his manliness is typically grounded in his youth with some texts not referring to
his military honour or strength
- Where his timidity is mentioned it is with regards to his wavering morals rather than his military
weakness
- It is odd that contemporaries did not criticise his conduct in war, given that he later developed a
reputation for ‘unwarlike effeminacy’ - 43
- His values aligned with those 'implicit in the late medieval language of manhood’ - 43
