PSY200 Key Terms (Research Methods in Psychology A)
Aim: the researcher’s area of interest – what they are looking at (e.g., aiming to investigate
helping behaviour).
Alpha (α) level: the probability of making a type 1 error; the significance level.
Alternative hypothesis: the researcher’s hypothesis about the outcome of a study (H1)
Anecdotal evidence: evidence from a single case that illustrates a phenomenon; when relied on
exclusively, as in pseudoscience, faulty conclusions can easily be drawn.
ANOVA: short for ANalysis of VAriance, the most common inferential statistical tool for
analysing the results of experiments when developed variables are measured on interval or ratio
scales.
ANOVA source table: a standardised method for displaying the results of an analysis of
variance; includes sources of variance, sums of squares, degrees of freedom, mean squares
(variance), F ratios, and probability values.
Anthrozoology: a branch of science primarily concerned with examining human-animal
interactions.
Application: a goal of science in which basic principles discovered through scientific methods
are applied to solve problems.
Archival data: data initially collected for a purpose not related to a current research study and
used later for a specific purpose in the current research.
Archival research: a method in which existing records are examined to test a hypothesis.
Authority: a way of knowing proposed by Charles Pierce, in which a person develops a belief
by agreeing with someone perceived to be an expert.
ATI design: Aptitude-Treatment Interaction design; form of P x E factorial design found in
educational research, the goal of which is to examine possible interactions between an aptitude
variable (person factor) and a treatment variable (environmental factor).
Availability heuristic: social cognition bias in which vivid or memorable events lead people to
overestimate the frequency of occurrence of these events.
A priori method: A way of knowing, proposed by Charles Peirce, in which a person develops a
belief by reasoning and reaching agreement with others who are convinced of the merits of the
reasoned argument.
Bar chart: a graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g., behaviours observed) that
the researcher wishes to compare.
Behavioural categories: key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher
conducting the observation will pay attention to and record.
Behaviour checklists: Lists of behaviours with predefined operational definitions that
researchers are trained to use in an observational study.
Belief perseverance: unwillingness to consider evidence that contradicts a strongly held view;
similar to Peirce’s principle of tenacity.
Bias sampling: sampling that is not representative of the population.
Bivariate approach: a statistical analysis investigating the relationship between two variables.
,Case study: in-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered
from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g., observations &
interviews).
Closed questions: (a) questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g., yes/no. They
generate quantitative data. (b) a type of question found on surveys that can be answered yes or no
by marking a point on a scale.
Cluster sampling: a probability sample that randomly selects clusters of people having some
feature in common (e.g., students taking history courses) and tests all people within the selected
cluster (e.g., all students in three of the nine history courses available at the university).
Codes: words or short phrases that summarise qualitative data in a meaningful way and seek to
capture a salient aspect of the data.
Coefficient of determination (r2): for two correlated factors, the proportion of variance in one
factor that can be attributed to the second factor; found by squaring Pearson’s r.
Cohort: a group of individuals who share an important characteristic; within the context of
development a; psychology research, this shared characteristic is usually a birth year.
Co-variables: the variables investigated in a correlation.
Community forum: in program evaluation research, a meeting open to community members to
discuss the need for, or the operation of, some program.
Concurrent validity: comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they
produce similar results. If they do then the new test has concurrent validity.
Confidentiality: In research ethics am agreement by the researcher not to divulge the identity of
those participating in the study. Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect
that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
Confidence interval: an inferential statistic in which a range of scores is calculated; with some
degree of confidence (e.g., 95%), it is assumed that population values lie within the interval.
Confirmation bias: Social cognition bias in which events that confirm a strongly held belief are
more readily perceived and remembered; disconfirming events are ignored or forgotten.
Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we
cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV.
Constant comparative method: data collection, coding and analysis occur concurrently,
influencing each other and assisting the researcher in identifying and developing concepts in the
data.
Construct validity: in measurement, construct validity occurs when the measure being used
accurately assesses some hypothetical construct; it also refers to whether the construct itself is
valid. In research construct validity refers to whether the operational definitions used for
independent and dependent variables are valid.
Content analysis: (a) technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the
written data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data. (b) a procedure
used to systematically categorise the content of the behaviour (often verbal behaviour) being
recorded.
, Content validity: occurs when a measure appears to be a reasonable or logical measure of a trait
(e.g., as a measure of intelligence, problem solving has more content validity than hat size).
Continuous variable: variable for which a potentially infinite number of values exists (e.g., a
drug’s dosage level).
Control group: a group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave
when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g., allowed to sleep normally).
Controlled observation: an observation study where the researchers control some variables -
often takes place in laboratory setting.
Convenience sample: a non-probability sample in which the researcher requests volunteers from
a group of people who meet the general requirements of the study (e.g., teenagers); used in most
psychological research, except when specific estimates of population values must be made.
Convergent validity: occurs when scores on a test designed to measure some construct (e.g.,
self-esteem) are correlated with scores on other tests theoretically related to the construct.
Correlational analysis: a mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether
scores for two covariables are related.
Correlation matrix: a table that summarises a series of correlations among several variables.
Cost-effectiveness analysis: form of program evaluation that assesses outcomes in terms of the
costs involved in developing, running and completing the program.
Counterbalancing: a way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design,
e.g., half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A.
Counter-examples: responses that contradict the patterns a researcher identifies in the data;
involves searching for data that does not support the researcher's interpretations.
Covert observation: also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know
their behaviour is being observed.
Credibility checks: checks by researchers that interpretations are logical, grounded in the data,
transparent, coherent and robust.
Criterion validity: form of validity in which a psychological measure is able to predict some
future behaviour or is meaningfully related to some other measure.
Criterion variable: in a regression analysis, the variable being predicted from the predictor
variable (e.g., university marks are predicted from ATAR scores).
Critical value: the value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be
accepted.
Cross-lagged panel correlation: a type of correlational research designed to deal with the
directionality problem; if variables X and Y are measured at two different times and if X precedes
Y then X might cause Y, but Y cannot cause X.
Cross-sectional design: a research design that compares score means among and between
different age groups (cohorts) at a single point in time.
Cross-sectional study: in developmental psychology, a design in which age is the independent
variable and different groups of people are tested; each group is of a different age.
Data-driven: Describes the belief of research psychologists that conclusions about behaviour
should be supported by data collected scientifically.
Aim: the researcher’s area of interest – what they are looking at (e.g., aiming to investigate
helping behaviour).
Alpha (α) level: the probability of making a type 1 error; the significance level.
Alternative hypothesis: the researcher’s hypothesis about the outcome of a study (H1)
Anecdotal evidence: evidence from a single case that illustrates a phenomenon; when relied on
exclusively, as in pseudoscience, faulty conclusions can easily be drawn.
ANOVA: short for ANalysis of VAriance, the most common inferential statistical tool for
analysing the results of experiments when developed variables are measured on interval or ratio
scales.
ANOVA source table: a standardised method for displaying the results of an analysis of
variance; includes sources of variance, sums of squares, degrees of freedom, mean squares
(variance), F ratios, and probability values.
Anthrozoology: a branch of science primarily concerned with examining human-animal
interactions.
Application: a goal of science in which basic principles discovered through scientific methods
are applied to solve problems.
Archival data: data initially collected for a purpose not related to a current research study and
used later for a specific purpose in the current research.
Archival research: a method in which existing records are examined to test a hypothesis.
Authority: a way of knowing proposed by Charles Pierce, in which a person develops a belief
by agreeing with someone perceived to be an expert.
ATI design: Aptitude-Treatment Interaction design; form of P x E factorial design found in
educational research, the goal of which is to examine possible interactions between an aptitude
variable (person factor) and a treatment variable (environmental factor).
Availability heuristic: social cognition bias in which vivid or memorable events lead people to
overestimate the frequency of occurrence of these events.
A priori method: A way of knowing, proposed by Charles Peirce, in which a person develops a
belief by reasoning and reaching agreement with others who are convinced of the merits of the
reasoned argument.
Bar chart: a graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g., behaviours observed) that
the researcher wishes to compare.
Behavioural categories: key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher
conducting the observation will pay attention to and record.
Behaviour checklists: Lists of behaviours with predefined operational definitions that
researchers are trained to use in an observational study.
Belief perseverance: unwillingness to consider evidence that contradicts a strongly held view;
similar to Peirce’s principle of tenacity.
Bias sampling: sampling that is not representative of the population.
Bivariate approach: a statistical analysis investigating the relationship between two variables.
,Case study: in-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered
from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g., observations &
interviews).
Closed questions: (a) questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g., yes/no. They
generate quantitative data. (b) a type of question found on surveys that can be answered yes or no
by marking a point on a scale.
Cluster sampling: a probability sample that randomly selects clusters of people having some
feature in common (e.g., students taking history courses) and tests all people within the selected
cluster (e.g., all students in three of the nine history courses available at the university).
Codes: words or short phrases that summarise qualitative data in a meaningful way and seek to
capture a salient aspect of the data.
Coefficient of determination (r2): for two correlated factors, the proportion of variance in one
factor that can be attributed to the second factor; found by squaring Pearson’s r.
Cohort: a group of individuals who share an important characteristic; within the context of
development a; psychology research, this shared characteristic is usually a birth year.
Co-variables: the variables investigated in a correlation.
Community forum: in program evaluation research, a meeting open to community members to
discuss the need for, or the operation of, some program.
Concurrent validity: comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they
produce similar results. If they do then the new test has concurrent validity.
Confidentiality: In research ethics am agreement by the researcher not to divulge the identity of
those participating in the study. Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect
that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
Confidence interval: an inferential statistic in which a range of scores is calculated; with some
degree of confidence (e.g., 95%), it is assumed that population values lie within the interval.
Confirmation bias: Social cognition bias in which events that confirm a strongly held belief are
more readily perceived and remembered; disconfirming events are ignored or forgotten.
Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we
cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV.
Constant comparative method: data collection, coding and analysis occur concurrently,
influencing each other and assisting the researcher in identifying and developing concepts in the
data.
Construct validity: in measurement, construct validity occurs when the measure being used
accurately assesses some hypothetical construct; it also refers to whether the construct itself is
valid. In research construct validity refers to whether the operational definitions used for
independent and dependent variables are valid.
Content analysis: (a) technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the
written data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data. (b) a procedure
used to systematically categorise the content of the behaviour (often verbal behaviour) being
recorded.
, Content validity: occurs when a measure appears to be a reasonable or logical measure of a trait
(e.g., as a measure of intelligence, problem solving has more content validity than hat size).
Continuous variable: variable for which a potentially infinite number of values exists (e.g., a
drug’s dosage level).
Control group: a group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave
when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g., allowed to sleep normally).
Controlled observation: an observation study where the researchers control some variables -
often takes place in laboratory setting.
Convenience sample: a non-probability sample in which the researcher requests volunteers from
a group of people who meet the general requirements of the study (e.g., teenagers); used in most
psychological research, except when specific estimates of population values must be made.
Convergent validity: occurs when scores on a test designed to measure some construct (e.g.,
self-esteem) are correlated with scores on other tests theoretically related to the construct.
Correlational analysis: a mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether
scores for two covariables are related.
Correlation matrix: a table that summarises a series of correlations among several variables.
Cost-effectiveness analysis: form of program evaluation that assesses outcomes in terms of the
costs involved in developing, running and completing the program.
Counterbalancing: a way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design,
e.g., half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A.
Counter-examples: responses that contradict the patterns a researcher identifies in the data;
involves searching for data that does not support the researcher's interpretations.
Covert observation: also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know
their behaviour is being observed.
Credibility checks: checks by researchers that interpretations are logical, grounded in the data,
transparent, coherent and robust.
Criterion validity: form of validity in which a psychological measure is able to predict some
future behaviour or is meaningfully related to some other measure.
Criterion variable: in a regression analysis, the variable being predicted from the predictor
variable (e.g., university marks are predicted from ATAR scores).
Critical value: the value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be
accepted.
Cross-lagged panel correlation: a type of correlational research designed to deal with the
directionality problem; if variables X and Y are measured at two different times and if X precedes
Y then X might cause Y, but Y cannot cause X.
Cross-sectional design: a research design that compares score means among and between
different age groups (cohorts) at a single point in time.
Cross-sectional study: in developmental psychology, a design in which age is the independent
variable and different groups of people are tested; each group is of a different age.
Data-driven: Describes the belief of research psychologists that conclusions about behaviour
should be supported by data collected scientifically.
