ISLAM AND POLITICS – PETER MANDAVILLE – 2020
1.RELIGION, MODERNITY, AND THE POLITICS OF SECULARISM
Secularism in the West
Secularism is the product of two major shifts in European society:
• The Renaissance led to a transformation over how and where people sought knowledge. It marked a
rediscovery of classical learning from antiquity, often mediated through Arab philosophers and scientists.
Emphasis was placed on the idea that people could, through knowledge and science, control the world
around them.
• By the early XVI century sovereigns have come to resent the pervasive influence of the Catholic Church. The
Peace of Westphalia in 1648 marks the start of the modern system of sovereign states in Western Europe and
introduced the principle of non-interference by the Church in the affairs of sovereign princes.
Secularism refers to the privatization of religion as a sphere of social activity, lower levels of active participation in
religion, and a general decline in the influence of religion in everyday life.
The religious and the political in Islam
The European understanding of the religious and the political as separate spheres of human activity is not
necessarily true for other societies.
Within the realm of philosophy, the Muslim world witnessed an early tendency toward open inquiry which gave
way to a sharp distinction between knowledge concerning:
• morality and law, seen as not amenable to reason
• science and technology.
Islam does not possess a hierarchy of religious authority. The Muslim world has seen the emergence of various
classes of privileged interpreters of religious knowledge. The alim, faqih, imam have the ability to speak with
authority in the name of Islam. When the Western model of state spread, it entered countries with very different
kinds of social and political order, not premised on liberal ideals. Islam is often represented as a way of life that
pervades all sectors of human activity; religion is not separated from any other domain of life. Where Christian
scripture allows for a clear division between worldly and divine authority, Islamic sources tend to emphasize the
totalizing sovereignty of God. Some scholars have held that from the Quran can be derived a very specific Islamic
mode of governance. Others believe that any system of government is acceptable so long as it is compatible with
the moral principles of Islamic teaching. The Prophet Muhammad served not only as a messenger of divine
revelation but also as a military commander and a statesman. He was forced to deal with political questions.
Many Muslim sovereigns had a very clear notion of religion and politics as distinct arenas but manipulated the
former to achieve political power. Until recently there was no formal distinction between religion and secular law.
The advent of European colonialism led to the introduction of dual legal systems featuring elements of both
common law (regarding civil and criminal matters) and religious law. In the post-colonial period, the legal systems
of Muslim countries have been primarily based on secular common law models. Moreover, the state has been a
key player in the religious space, by organizing the religious life of its citizens.
The Muslim world comprises 1.6 billion people encompassing hundreds of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups
across multiple continents. Due to this enormous pluralism, Islam is understood in very different ways from one
society to another. Muslims in different settings develop unique understandings of the way their religion relates
to everyday life and practical politics. This can render direct comparison between Muslims tricky.
Islamism: particular kind of politics that seeks to create a political order defined in terms of Islam.
Muslim Politics takes into account the pluralism of Islam through an emphasis on Muslims as social actors. It
looks at the diverse ways in which Muslims make use of Islam around issues of social order, power, and authority.
Organizations such as ISIS and Hezbollah might both be described as Islamists; even though they are politically
opposed to each other. This shows that practical expressions of political Islam vary enormously depending on the
political circumstances in which they operate.
2.ISLAM AND POLITICS: HISTORY AND KEY CONCEPTS
The origins of Islam
The Prophet Muhammad is believed by Muslims to be chosen by God to deliver his revelation to humankind.
Muhammad is God’s messenger, the medium through which the Quran was revealed. Arabia in the VII century
was populated by various tribes. Muhammad was born in Mecca, where he learned the family’s trade business
and earned a reputation as an upstanding provider of financial services. At the age of 40, while Muhammad was
hiding from the hectic materialistic commercial life of Mecca, he met the archangel Gabriel who informed him of
his prophetic calling. Muhammad embraced his calling together with his cousin and son-in-law Ali. Muhammad
and Ali were the first to adopt Islam. Indigenous Arabian religions offered skills for seeking control for personal
gain. The message of Muhammad was at odds with the prevailing religious norms. At its very core was of God’s
oneness, a strict monotheism. Submission to the divine will of God defines being a Muslim.
The five pillars of Islam:
,• The profession of the uniqueness of God and the recognition of Muhammad as his messenger.
• The prayer to be performed five times a day
• Fasting from dawn to dusk during the holy month of Ramadan
• To give a percentage of income for charitable purposes
• The requirement to go to the holy city of Mecca, if able-bodied and with sufficient means
Many elements of pre-Islamic tribal practice came to be integrated into Islam.
Sources of authoritarian knowledge in Islam:
• The Quran, as the literal word of God
• Muhammad’s Sunna, the Prophetic tradition. Muhammad is the embodiment of Quranic normativity.
The Hijra and early community in Medina
Muhammad did not receive a sympathetic hearing when he began to speak publicly about the new religion
because part of the message was a direct critique of the city’s entire social order. The first ones to accept Islam
became the target of persecution. Thus, Muhammad and his followers moved to the city of Yathrib. This
migration (or hijra) marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The hijra represented a shift from a model of
community based on tribal affiliations to a model of community based on a shared vision of divinely given social
order. Muhammad was demanded to be an arbiter in public affairs of Yathrib, renamed Medina, marking the
beginning of his career as a leader of a political community. Muhammad began forming alliances with local tribes
and attracting more followers to Islam. By the time of Muhammad’s death in 632, he managed to bring all of
central Arabia under his control. While he was alive, correct and authentic Islam was available, embodied in the
Prophet’s conduct. His death marks the beginning of Muslim politics in the sense of debate between different
interpretations of the religion. Regarding the question of who should succeed the Prophet as the community’s
political leader, one group believed that the leadership should remain vested within Muhammad’s family. They
favoured the candidacy of Ali. This group evolved into the Shi’i sect of Islam. The other group preferred the idea
of choosing a leader according to the consensus of the community. This latter view prevailed, and Abu Bakr, one
of the Prophet’s closest friends, was chosen as the first caliph (from Khalifa, successor).
The Rashidun caliphs
The first four successors to the Prophet are known as the Rashidun (rightly guided) caliphs. In this period, the
affairs of the Muslim community were conducted in very close accordance with the Quran and the Sunna. Muslim
forces were able to gain much of the Middle East. Rather than directly occupying newly acquired territories, the
Arabian Muslims would dispatch governors. Under the third caliph Uthman, North Africa and Persia came under
Muslim rule. When Uthman was assassinated, Ali ascended to the leadership of the Muslim community. His
authority was immediately challenged, most notably from the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya. Ali was then
assassinated, and the period of Rashidun ended.
The great Islamic dynasties (661-1258)
The Umayyad dynasty
Mu'awiya established the first Islamic dynasty, and the capital was moved to Damascus. The Umayyad period
attempted to consolidate the Arab administration of foreign territories by establishing a complex administrative
system. Mu'awiya named his son, Yazid, as his successor, disappointing those who hoped that one of Ali’s sons
might come to power. Ali’s younger son, Husayn, joined a rebellion against the Damascus caliphate. This was a
decisive moment in the emergence of Shi’ism as a separate sect of Islam.
The Abbasid dynasty
Often regarded as Islam’s golden age, the empire under the Abbasids made its greatest achievements in the
fields of science and philosophy. The Abbasid caliphs made two important changes: the extensive use of non-
Arab officials in court positions and the fact that non-Arab Muslims were no longer taxed at a higher rate. A
number of regional kingdoms began to emerge. The dynasty ended in 1258 when the caliph was killed.
The rise of Muslim political society
The Muslim political society is a system of political and religious authority composed of the caliph, the religious
scholars, and the institutions of religious law. The alim (pl. ulama) is an individual trained in religious scholarship.
The term ulama also refers to those invested with the capacity to engage matters of religious law. Under the
Abbasids, the ulama emerged as a professional class to serve as an authoritative reference for Islamic normativity
in the face of rival political factions offering competing interpretations of religion. Under the caliph Uthman,
efforts were made to standardize the ordering of verses in the Quran and to begin the systemic preservation of
reports (hadith) about the Prophet’s life. Islamic jurisprudence became a well-developed science during the
Umayyad period.
The term shari’ah refers to the moral and ethical system of Islam. Its practice relies on precedent. While very few
states claim to have legal systems based entirely on shari’ah, most other Muslim-majority countries integrate
aspects of religious law into their secular legal systems.
Jurisprudential deliberation is structured around 4 key sources of authority:
,• Quran, as the word of God.
• Sunna – The Prophet’s tradition was regarded as the correct application of shari’ah.
• Ijma – The consensus of the leading scholars.
• Qiyas – The method of analytical deduction. When neither the Quran nor Sunna is clear on a particular point
of law, a legal scholar may deduce an opinion based on examples from an analogous situation.
Ijtihad = the exercise of independent interpretation regarding legal matters. Ijtihad has been introducing
distortions. In the early years of Islamic expansion, legal interpretation was left to the discretion of local
governors. Customary law was also applied so long as it was compatible with the shari’ah. Fatwa (pl. Fatawa) = a
legal opinion issued by a competent authority (alim or faqih). The strength of its influence depends on the
reputation of its promulgator. The relationship between the ulama and the state varied overtime, witnessing both
periods of official co-option and times when the ulama served as a mediating layer between the state and the
concerns of popular society. Many ulama did not hesitate to issue dissident fatawa directly questioning the
authority of the state.
Sufis and Salafis in historical and contemporary perspective
Sufism, the mystical variant of Islam, has been in existence since shortly after the death of the Prophet. It
emphasized the emotive dimensions of religious experience and the spiritual pursuit of divine love. Sufism does
not represent a sect or legal school. Rather, it constitutes a complementary mode of seeking religious knowledge
compatible with the shari’ah. Sufism attracted mass followings among Muslims in search of spirituality but less
inclined to inculcate themselves in the more formal normativity of the shari’ah.
Salafism is another theological orientation in Islam, representing an effort to purify Islam of external influences
and return to the model of the Prophet. Many contemporary jihadists consider themselves Salafis. Salafism relies
exclusively on sources from the earliest period of Islam. Features of the Salafi approach:
• A strict reliance on the Quran and, regarding the Sunna, only on the hadiths whose authenticity in
unquestioned.
• Rejection of pluralism. There is no such thing as different groups of Muslims or different interpretations of
the religion.
• Rejection of innovations that distort the purity of the message.
• Rejection of forms of philosophy that permit the exercise of reason in determining the meaning of religion.
Wahhabism, a variant of Salafism, takes its name from Wahhab who was concerned about the dangers posed to
Islam by the innovations. Wahhabi scholars have divided true believers from infidels in the name of justifying
political expansion and the use of violence. Salafism symbolized the individual’s effort to practice Islam according
to an active model without resorting to religious scholars. It invited Muslims to take religion into their own hands.
Therefore, Salafism does not necessarily lead to political radicalism. There are three forms of Salafism:
• Salafi quietists emphasize the importance of individual adherence to proper practice but reject the idea of
actively pursuing an Islamic political order as a distinct religious duty.
• Salafi Islamists believe in the active pursuit of an Islamic political order. Under very specific conditions,
violence may be a necessary part. This method became influential among a very dedicated group of activists
in Saudi Arabia. From the 1990s, we have seen Salafi groups participating in politics, for example in Kuwait,
Yemen and Lebanon, and in the wake of Egypt’s 2011 revolution.
• Salafi jihadis emphasize that contemporary circumstances make violent struggle an individual duty
incumbent upon all Muslims. Boko Haram, ISIS, Al Qaeda fall within this category.
It is important to differentiate Salafi religious doctrine (conservative but not politically active) from political
Salafism that aims, through violence, to impose shari’ah-based political orders.
The global resurgence in interest in Salafism is driven by two factors:
• A perception that Islam faces external threats from globalization and Western culture
• The idea that the fragmentation of religious authority has created uncertainty about religious knowledge.
The gunpowder empires and Europe’s rise
Muslim traders and scholars were the animating force behind a cosmopolitan system stretching from East Africa
to India, China and the Malay peninsula. From the XIV century, Islam began to find new lands in sub-Saharan
Africa. Three dynasties from this period are significant. Referred to as the Islamic gunpowder empires – due to the
role that military technology played in ensuring their pre-eminence – these are the polities via which the Muslim
world encountered European imperialism. The Ottomans proved highly adept at managing expansion; under
Mehmet II they conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul. Making extensive use of foreign and non-
Muslim administrative expertise, the Ottomans created a bureaucracy unlike any other. Ottoman sultans claimed
for themselves the title of caliph and Istanbul's sovereign was recognized as the political authority of the Muslim
world. The Ottomans relied on a system of provincial governors to rule their territories. When the Ottoman
growth reached its apex in 1683, the empire grew entwined with Europe’s emergent imperial ambitions. The
Ottoman population began to take on a nationalist consciousness.
, Islamic responses to imperialism
Islamic revivalism
Manifestations of revivalist trend were visible from the mid-XVIII century. To Wahhab’s thinking, a religious
reformer from the Arabian Peninsula, the Muslim world had fallen into decline because Muslims had strayed away
from the core teachings of the faith. The central matter in his teaching was tawhid, the oneness of God. In Iraq, his
ideas were translated in political program.
Islamic reformism
The scholar Al-Afghani theorized the Muslim condition through the reality of colonial occupation. He seeks to
decouple the agents of foreign occupation (e.g., Britain, France) from superior military technology. The Muslim
world from the X to XII centuries constituted the hub of global scientific innovation. He believes that philosophy
must precede and lead to science in order for the latter to be properly deployed. Present-day scholars of Islam
had become intellectually stagnant through their uncritical use of medieval frameworks of moral philosophy.
Afghani’s goal is to reform Islamic thought by reintroducing the spirit of philosophical inquiry. This project of
Islamic intellectual reinvigoration was understood to constitute a path out of colonial rule. Afghani hoped to
mobilize the brightest minds around a vision of Islamic emancipation, both from foreign rule and from internal
religious stagnation. He was the first modern Islamic activist to use Europe as a base for propaganda purposes.
However, Afghani’s pan-Islamic vision never came to fruition. The project of nationalism captured the popular
imagination far more effectively. After WWI, the British put nominally independent rulers in Egypt and Iraq, but
the political control continued. The same situation happened in the mandate territories of Palestine and
Transjordan, alongside the French control over Syria and Lebanon. With the abolition of the caliphate in 1924, for
the first time the Muslim world had no symbolic figurehead.
3. STATE FORMATION AND THE MAKING OF ISLAMISM
Modern states in the Muslim world
Nationalism took on various forms in different parts of the Muslim world, reflecting the diverse political
conditions under which Muslim communities where living. In the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
inaugurated a cultural revolution, trying to distance the new republic from its Ottoman heritage. In the Arab
Middle East, political forces tried to establish an Islamic version of the nation-state. In the Indian subcontinent, it
was decided to establish a separate homeland for Muslims; Islam was transformed into a form of nationalism.
Theorists of the post-caliphate order
Rida and Raziq are two leading intellectuals working in Egypt during the interwar years. Rida recognized that
prevailing conditions did not permit a renewed caliphate. The Islamic order is better applied within the framework
of nation-states. Rida emphasized the importance of a strong relationship between the ulama (as keepers of the
tradition and the law) and the political authorities.
Raziq denied the authorization for a caliphate in the Canonical sources of Islam. He stated that nowhere in the
Quran can be found an institutionalized caliphate and that the caliphate was legitimized through force. While a
government is necessary, there is nothing in Islamic sources that requires the state to conform to any particular
model. Any form of government that does not violate the core principles of Islam is acceptable.
The abolishment of the caliphate was followed by a number of Muslim congresses. Framed as attempts to discuss
Islamic issues and determine a solution to the dilemma of Muslim leadership, these meetings were mostly
opportunities for political aspirants to compete for a position. After the abolishment of the caliphate, the emir of
Western Arabia had proclaimed himself caliph, a claim that was never widely recognized.
Nationalist thought and state formation
In the Middle East, a group of nationalist intellectuals argued that post-colonial futures should be built around an
Arab identity with a rich heritage of language and culture tracing back to the birth of Islam. Nationalism was a
perfect space for the formation of enduring political identities. Through the Committee of Union and Progress,
Mustafa Kemal emerged as one of the leaders of the Turkish Independence movements. Kemal in 1920 was
proclaimed president of the new Turkish Republic. The state ideology of the Republic, known as Kemalism,
represents a form of modern nationalism. Turkey’s Ottoman and Islamic past were de-emphasized in favour of a
new emphasis on the glories of Anatolia’s pre-Islamic civilizations. For Kemal, Islam was an obstacle to the
Westernizing process of Turkey. While he knew it would be impossible to eradicate the influences of religion
altogether, he sought to bring it under the control of the State. The Kemalist secularism left little space for the
presence of religion in public life. The wearing of Islamic clothing – such as headscarves – came to be legally
forbid in all public spaces. The government established a directorate of religious affairs to oversee all institutions
– such as mosques and Quranic schools – providing religious services. Turkey represents the most extreme form
of secular nationalism in the Muslim world.
In 1882, Britain occupied Egypt in order to protect their interests in the Suez Canal. British rule continued even
after formal independence in 1922. Ongoing British involvement ensured that Egypt’s early experiment with
nationalism did not consolidate. Egypt’s real political independence had to wait until the emergence of the Free
1.RELIGION, MODERNITY, AND THE POLITICS OF SECULARISM
Secularism in the West
Secularism is the product of two major shifts in European society:
• The Renaissance led to a transformation over how and where people sought knowledge. It marked a
rediscovery of classical learning from antiquity, often mediated through Arab philosophers and scientists.
Emphasis was placed on the idea that people could, through knowledge and science, control the world
around them.
• By the early XVI century sovereigns have come to resent the pervasive influence of the Catholic Church. The
Peace of Westphalia in 1648 marks the start of the modern system of sovereign states in Western Europe and
introduced the principle of non-interference by the Church in the affairs of sovereign princes.
Secularism refers to the privatization of religion as a sphere of social activity, lower levels of active participation in
religion, and a general decline in the influence of religion in everyday life.
The religious and the political in Islam
The European understanding of the religious and the political as separate spheres of human activity is not
necessarily true for other societies.
Within the realm of philosophy, the Muslim world witnessed an early tendency toward open inquiry which gave
way to a sharp distinction between knowledge concerning:
• morality and law, seen as not amenable to reason
• science and technology.
Islam does not possess a hierarchy of religious authority. The Muslim world has seen the emergence of various
classes of privileged interpreters of religious knowledge. The alim, faqih, imam have the ability to speak with
authority in the name of Islam. When the Western model of state spread, it entered countries with very different
kinds of social and political order, not premised on liberal ideals. Islam is often represented as a way of life that
pervades all sectors of human activity; religion is not separated from any other domain of life. Where Christian
scripture allows for a clear division between worldly and divine authority, Islamic sources tend to emphasize the
totalizing sovereignty of God. Some scholars have held that from the Quran can be derived a very specific Islamic
mode of governance. Others believe that any system of government is acceptable so long as it is compatible with
the moral principles of Islamic teaching. The Prophet Muhammad served not only as a messenger of divine
revelation but also as a military commander and a statesman. He was forced to deal with political questions.
Many Muslim sovereigns had a very clear notion of religion and politics as distinct arenas but manipulated the
former to achieve political power. Until recently there was no formal distinction between religion and secular law.
The advent of European colonialism led to the introduction of dual legal systems featuring elements of both
common law (regarding civil and criminal matters) and religious law. In the post-colonial period, the legal systems
of Muslim countries have been primarily based on secular common law models. Moreover, the state has been a
key player in the religious space, by organizing the religious life of its citizens.
The Muslim world comprises 1.6 billion people encompassing hundreds of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups
across multiple continents. Due to this enormous pluralism, Islam is understood in very different ways from one
society to another. Muslims in different settings develop unique understandings of the way their religion relates
to everyday life and practical politics. This can render direct comparison between Muslims tricky.
Islamism: particular kind of politics that seeks to create a political order defined in terms of Islam.
Muslim Politics takes into account the pluralism of Islam through an emphasis on Muslims as social actors. It
looks at the diverse ways in which Muslims make use of Islam around issues of social order, power, and authority.
Organizations such as ISIS and Hezbollah might both be described as Islamists; even though they are politically
opposed to each other. This shows that practical expressions of political Islam vary enormously depending on the
political circumstances in which they operate.
2.ISLAM AND POLITICS: HISTORY AND KEY CONCEPTS
The origins of Islam
The Prophet Muhammad is believed by Muslims to be chosen by God to deliver his revelation to humankind.
Muhammad is God’s messenger, the medium through which the Quran was revealed. Arabia in the VII century
was populated by various tribes. Muhammad was born in Mecca, where he learned the family’s trade business
and earned a reputation as an upstanding provider of financial services. At the age of 40, while Muhammad was
hiding from the hectic materialistic commercial life of Mecca, he met the archangel Gabriel who informed him of
his prophetic calling. Muhammad embraced his calling together with his cousin and son-in-law Ali. Muhammad
and Ali were the first to adopt Islam. Indigenous Arabian religions offered skills for seeking control for personal
gain. The message of Muhammad was at odds with the prevailing religious norms. At its very core was of God’s
oneness, a strict monotheism. Submission to the divine will of God defines being a Muslim.
The five pillars of Islam:
,• The profession of the uniqueness of God and the recognition of Muhammad as his messenger.
• The prayer to be performed five times a day
• Fasting from dawn to dusk during the holy month of Ramadan
• To give a percentage of income for charitable purposes
• The requirement to go to the holy city of Mecca, if able-bodied and with sufficient means
Many elements of pre-Islamic tribal practice came to be integrated into Islam.
Sources of authoritarian knowledge in Islam:
• The Quran, as the literal word of God
• Muhammad’s Sunna, the Prophetic tradition. Muhammad is the embodiment of Quranic normativity.
The Hijra and early community in Medina
Muhammad did not receive a sympathetic hearing when he began to speak publicly about the new religion
because part of the message was a direct critique of the city’s entire social order. The first ones to accept Islam
became the target of persecution. Thus, Muhammad and his followers moved to the city of Yathrib. This
migration (or hijra) marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The hijra represented a shift from a model of
community based on tribal affiliations to a model of community based on a shared vision of divinely given social
order. Muhammad was demanded to be an arbiter in public affairs of Yathrib, renamed Medina, marking the
beginning of his career as a leader of a political community. Muhammad began forming alliances with local tribes
and attracting more followers to Islam. By the time of Muhammad’s death in 632, he managed to bring all of
central Arabia under his control. While he was alive, correct and authentic Islam was available, embodied in the
Prophet’s conduct. His death marks the beginning of Muslim politics in the sense of debate between different
interpretations of the religion. Regarding the question of who should succeed the Prophet as the community’s
political leader, one group believed that the leadership should remain vested within Muhammad’s family. They
favoured the candidacy of Ali. This group evolved into the Shi’i sect of Islam. The other group preferred the idea
of choosing a leader according to the consensus of the community. This latter view prevailed, and Abu Bakr, one
of the Prophet’s closest friends, was chosen as the first caliph (from Khalifa, successor).
The Rashidun caliphs
The first four successors to the Prophet are known as the Rashidun (rightly guided) caliphs. In this period, the
affairs of the Muslim community were conducted in very close accordance with the Quran and the Sunna. Muslim
forces were able to gain much of the Middle East. Rather than directly occupying newly acquired territories, the
Arabian Muslims would dispatch governors. Under the third caliph Uthman, North Africa and Persia came under
Muslim rule. When Uthman was assassinated, Ali ascended to the leadership of the Muslim community. His
authority was immediately challenged, most notably from the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya. Ali was then
assassinated, and the period of Rashidun ended.
The great Islamic dynasties (661-1258)
The Umayyad dynasty
Mu'awiya established the first Islamic dynasty, and the capital was moved to Damascus. The Umayyad period
attempted to consolidate the Arab administration of foreign territories by establishing a complex administrative
system. Mu'awiya named his son, Yazid, as his successor, disappointing those who hoped that one of Ali’s sons
might come to power. Ali’s younger son, Husayn, joined a rebellion against the Damascus caliphate. This was a
decisive moment in the emergence of Shi’ism as a separate sect of Islam.
The Abbasid dynasty
Often regarded as Islam’s golden age, the empire under the Abbasids made its greatest achievements in the
fields of science and philosophy. The Abbasid caliphs made two important changes: the extensive use of non-
Arab officials in court positions and the fact that non-Arab Muslims were no longer taxed at a higher rate. A
number of regional kingdoms began to emerge. The dynasty ended in 1258 when the caliph was killed.
The rise of Muslim political society
The Muslim political society is a system of political and religious authority composed of the caliph, the religious
scholars, and the institutions of religious law. The alim (pl. ulama) is an individual trained in religious scholarship.
The term ulama also refers to those invested with the capacity to engage matters of religious law. Under the
Abbasids, the ulama emerged as a professional class to serve as an authoritative reference for Islamic normativity
in the face of rival political factions offering competing interpretations of religion. Under the caliph Uthman,
efforts were made to standardize the ordering of verses in the Quran and to begin the systemic preservation of
reports (hadith) about the Prophet’s life. Islamic jurisprudence became a well-developed science during the
Umayyad period.
The term shari’ah refers to the moral and ethical system of Islam. Its practice relies on precedent. While very few
states claim to have legal systems based entirely on shari’ah, most other Muslim-majority countries integrate
aspects of religious law into their secular legal systems.
Jurisprudential deliberation is structured around 4 key sources of authority:
,• Quran, as the word of God.
• Sunna – The Prophet’s tradition was regarded as the correct application of shari’ah.
• Ijma – The consensus of the leading scholars.
• Qiyas – The method of analytical deduction. When neither the Quran nor Sunna is clear on a particular point
of law, a legal scholar may deduce an opinion based on examples from an analogous situation.
Ijtihad = the exercise of independent interpretation regarding legal matters. Ijtihad has been introducing
distortions. In the early years of Islamic expansion, legal interpretation was left to the discretion of local
governors. Customary law was also applied so long as it was compatible with the shari’ah. Fatwa (pl. Fatawa) = a
legal opinion issued by a competent authority (alim or faqih). The strength of its influence depends on the
reputation of its promulgator. The relationship between the ulama and the state varied overtime, witnessing both
periods of official co-option and times when the ulama served as a mediating layer between the state and the
concerns of popular society. Many ulama did not hesitate to issue dissident fatawa directly questioning the
authority of the state.
Sufis and Salafis in historical and contemporary perspective
Sufism, the mystical variant of Islam, has been in existence since shortly after the death of the Prophet. It
emphasized the emotive dimensions of religious experience and the spiritual pursuit of divine love. Sufism does
not represent a sect or legal school. Rather, it constitutes a complementary mode of seeking religious knowledge
compatible with the shari’ah. Sufism attracted mass followings among Muslims in search of spirituality but less
inclined to inculcate themselves in the more formal normativity of the shari’ah.
Salafism is another theological orientation in Islam, representing an effort to purify Islam of external influences
and return to the model of the Prophet. Many contemporary jihadists consider themselves Salafis. Salafism relies
exclusively on sources from the earliest period of Islam. Features of the Salafi approach:
• A strict reliance on the Quran and, regarding the Sunna, only on the hadiths whose authenticity in
unquestioned.
• Rejection of pluralism. There is no such thing as different groups of Muslims or different interpretations of
the religion.
• Rejection of innovations that distort the purity of the message.
• Rejection of forms of philosophy that permit the exercise of reason in determining the meaning of religion.
Wahhabism, a variant of Salafism, takes its name from Wahhab who was concerned about the dangers posed to
Islam by the innovations. Wahhabi scholars have divided true believers from infidels in the name of justifying
political expansion and the use of violence. Salafism symbolized the individual’s effort to practice Islam according
to an active model without resorting to religious scholars. It invited Muslims to take religion into their own hands.
Therefore, Salafism does not necessarily lead to political radicalism. There are three forms of Salafism:
• Salafi quietists emphasize the importance of individual adherence to proper practice but reject the idea of
actively pursuing an Islamic political order as a distinct religious duty.
• Salafi Islamists believe in the active pursuit of an Islamic political order. Under very specific conditions,
violence may be a necessary part. This method became influential among a very dedicated group of activists
in Saudi Arabia. From the 1990s, we have seen Salafi groups participating in politics, for example in Kuwait,
Yemen and Lebanon, and in the wake of Egypt’s 2011 revolution.
• Salafi jihadis emphasize that contemporary circumstances make violent struggle an individual duty
incumbent upon all Muslims. Boko Haram, ISIS, Al Qaeda fall within this category.
It is important to differentiate Salafi religious doctrine (conservative but not politically active) from political
Salafism that aims, through violence, to impose shari’ah-based political orders.
The global resurgence in interest in Salafism is driven by two factors:
• A perception that Islam faces external threats from globalization and Western culture
• The idea that the fragmentation of religious authority has created uncertainty about religious knowledge.
The gunpowder empires and Europe’s rise
Muslim traders and scholars were the animating force behind a cosmopolitan system stretching from East Africa
to India, China and the Malay peninsula. From the XIV century, Islam began to find new lands in sub-Saharan
Africa. Three dynasties from this period are significant. Referred to as the Islamic gunpowder empires – due to the
role that military technology played in ensuring their pre-eminence – these are the polities via which the Muslim
world encountered European imperialism. The Ottomans proved highly adept at managing expansion; under
Mehmet II they conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul. Making extensive use of foreign and non-
Muslim administrative expertise, the Ottomans created a bureaucracy unlike any other. Ottoman sultans claimed
for themselves the title of caliph and Istanbul's sovereign was recognized as the political authority of the Muslim
world. The Ottomans relied on a system of provincial governors to rule their territories. When the Ottoman
growth reached its apex in 1683, the empire grew entwined with Europe’s emergent imperial ambitions. The
Ottoman population began to take on a nationalist consciousness.
, Islamic responses to imperialism
Islamic revivalism
Manifestations of revivalist trend were visible from the mid-XVIII century. To Wahhab’s thinking, a religious
reformer from the Arabian Peninsula, the Muslim world had fallen into decline because Muslims had strayed away
from the core teachings of the faith. The central matter in his teaching was tawhid, the oneness of God. In Iraq, his
ideas were translated in political program.
Islamic reformism
The scholar Al-Afghani theorized the Muslim condition through the reality of colonial occupation. He seeks to
decouple the agents of foreign occupation (e.g., Britain, France) from superior military technology. The Muslim
world from the X to XII centuries constituted the hub of global scientific innovation. He believes that philosophy
must precede and lead to science in order for the latter to be properly deployed. Present-day scholars of Islam
had become intellectually stagnant through their uncritical use of medieval frameworks of moral philosophy.
Afghani’s goal is to reform Islamic thought by reintroducing the spirit of philosophical inquiry. This project of
Islamic intellectual reinvigoration was understood to constitute a path out of colonial rule. Afghani hoped to
mobilize the brightest minds around a vision of Islamic emancipation, both from foreign rule and from internal
religious stagnation. He was the first modern Islamic activist to use Europe as a base for propaganda purposes.
However, Afghani’s pan-Islamic vision never came to fruition. The project of nationalism captured the popular
imagination far more effectively. After WWI, the British put nominally independent rulers in Egypt and Iraq, but
the political control continued. The same situation happened in the mandate territories of Palestine and
Transjordan, alongside the French control over Syria and Lebanon. With the abolition of the caliphate in 1924, for
the first time the Muslim world had no symbolic figurehead.
3. STATE FORMATION AND THE MAKING OF ISLAMISM
Modern states in the Muslim world
Nationalism took on various forms in different parts of the Muslim world, reflecting the diverse political
conditions under which Muslim communities where living. In the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
inaugurated a cultural revolution, trying to distance the new republic from its Ottoman heritage. In the Arab
Middle East, political forces tried to establish an Islamic version of the nation-state. In the Indian subcontinent, it
was decided to establish a separate homeland for Muslims; Islam was transformed into a form of nationalism.
Theorists of the post-caliphate order
Rida and Raziq are two leading intellectuals working in Egypt during the interwar years. Rida recognized that
prevailing conditions did not permit a renewed caliphate. The Islamic order is better applied within the framework
of nation-states. Rida emphasized the importance of a strong relationship between the ulama (as keepers of the
tradition and the law) and the political authorities.
Raziq denied the authorization for a caliphate in the Canonical sources of Islam. He stated that nowhere in the
Quran can be found an institutionalized caliphate and that the caliphate was legitimized through force. While a
government is necessary, there is nothing in Islamic sources that requires the state to conform to any particular
model. Any form of government that does not violate the core principles of Islam is acceptable.
The abolishment of the caliphate was followed by a number of Muslim congresses. Framed as attempts to discuss
Islamic issues and determine a solution to the dilemma of Muslim leadership, these meetings were mostly
opportunities for political aspirants to compete for a position. After the abolishment of the caliphate, the emir of
Western Arabia had proclaimed himself caliph, a claim that was never widely recognized.
Nationalist thought and state formation
In the Middle East, a group of nationalist intellectuals argued that post-colonial futures should be built around an
Arab identity with a rich heritage of language and culture tracing back to the birth of Islam. Nationalism was a
perfect space for the formation of enduring political identities. Through the Committee of Union and Progress,
Mustafa Kemal emerged as one of the leaders of the Turkish Independence movements. Kemal in 1920 was
proclaimed president of the new Turkish Republic. The state ideology of the Republic, known as Kemalism,
represents a form of modern nationalism. Turkey’s Ottoman and Islamic past were de-emphasized in favour of a
new emphasis on the glories of Anatolia’s pre-Islamic civilizations. For Kemal, Islam was an obstacle to the
Westernizing process of Turkey. While he knew it would be impossible to eradicate the influences of religion
altogether, he sought to bring it under the control of the State. The Kemalist secularism left little space for the
presence of religion in public life. The wearing of Islamic clothing – such as headscarves – came to be legally
forbid in all public spaces. The government established a directorate of religious affairs to oversee all institutions
– such as mosques and Quranic schools – providing religious services. Turkey represents the most extreme form
of secular nationalism in the Muslim world.
In 1882, Britain occupied Egypt in order to protect their interests in the Suez Canal. British rule continued even
after formal independence in 1922. Ongoing British involvement ensured that Egypt’s early experiment with
nationalism did not consolidate. Egypt’s real political independence had to wait until the emergence of the Free
