PSYCHOLOGY 242
Chapter 1
R\ship= relationship.
Fundamentals of Social Research Methods
The different methods of acquiring knowledge
For society to progress new knowledge is developed.
Scientists create a set question that they intend to utilize to find answers to gain knowledge and
help understand ourselves and our environment.
They find these questions with systemic rational thought and observation.
Epistemology –the study of ways of knowing about the world.
Non-scientific methods.
Method of authority.
When using this method people trust the knowledge and experience of the important people.
E.g., Trusting in the elderly, kings, political leaders& parents.
Critique: this method enables one to hide the power of their knowledge, its underlying ideologies, and
their weakness in judgment.
Mystical method
People seek knowledge by referring to individuals who are socially or politically defined as
qualified producers of knowledge.
i.e., people in certain villages, including kings, depend on the traditional healers because of their
experience.
Intuitive method
People reason based on their gut about certain occasions.
Though they may struggle to express their gut, they believe that following them will positively
benefit them.
Critique: This method solely depends on one's individual experiences and beliefs as people may reach
different conclusions in the same situation.
Conventional wisdom
All general knowledge or beliefs are accepted
,Critique of non-scientific methods-There is no way of telling which statement is accurate as they all give
reasoning and observation.
Contrasting methods
Rationalistic method
This method is based on human reasoning and logic
As they are believed to have the ability to think logically, that enables us to discover laws
through purely intellectual processes.
Also allows us to know what must be true by principles I.e., in pure math where laws and
principles are discovered without reality but axioms.
is used to create theories about the world.
Critique: Though this method has made a lot of progress in Natural science field it has made little
progress in the social science field.
Empirical method
Only facts that are observed in nature are the foundation of knowledge.
Opposite of the rationalistic method.
One can only ground their knowledge based on what they can see.
It is used to test theories about the world.
Scientific method and its properties.
A knowing process which is a combination of rationalistic and empirical methods.
which utilizes rationalism to develop theories and use empiricism to test them.
Two types of science knowledge's
A priori knowledge
This is the knowledge for earlier before experience.
Does not depend on the experience.
A posteriori
The knowledge we post the experience.
It depends on the experience or empirical evidence.
Two types of research conducted under scientific methods.
Quantitative research
Type of research involves using statistical methods to analyze data.
When conducting quantitative research, the following steps are to be followed.
Step 1
, Describe the object, relationship, or situation. Moreover, the object of the study must
be well represented using empirical methods.
I.e. Seeth acts like a snob.
Step 2
An explanation or statement about the relationship between then described facts
should be revealed using rationalistic methods.
I.e., This is because she is wealthy.
Step 3
A prediction of future events under the defined conditions should be permitted by the
stated explanation.
I.e., if her wealth is taken away, she would act like anyone else.
Step 4
An intelligent intervention is conducted based on correct explanation leading to the
ability to predict events.
I.e., process of removing her wealth Is carried out causing her to act like any other person
which proves that her money was the problem.
Qualitative research
Research that includes collections and analyzing non-numerical data.
i.e., text, video, or audio.
The researcher emphasizes observations and recording of events.
I.e., with Seeth the researcher will want to get to know her and experience the lives of the
affluent.
No priori explanations are given but a posterior at the end.
No predictions or explanations can be tested.
Science assumptions
1.The existence of natural and social laws.
2. These Laws can be discovered by human beings
3.Natural phenomena have natural causes
, Scientific understanding is based on parsimony of ideas: explanations for phenomena
are based on as few assumptions as possible, they are to be as simple as possible
4. New knowledge is accumulated gradually and sequentially.
5.Knowledge and truth are founded on evidence (DATA)
6. Scientific statements must be distinguished from common-sense statements
7. Scientific observation is objective
8. Scientific observation is systematic
NB
Often some characteristics are unknown
Can only predict an event when ALL conditions and circumstances are known
In social sciences it is rare to possess all information
Probability statement: if some conditions are satisfied the event will occur more often
than if some of these conditions were not met
Probabilistic explanation: Explanations that concede some uncertainty
Characteristics of scientific research
Scientific research is:
1.Empirical – each step is based on observation
2.Systematic and logical – observation must be done systematically, and a logical order
followed.
3.Replicable and transmittable – anyone placed in the same circumstances can observe the
same event and by reasoning, arrive at the same explanation and prediction.
The Relationship between theory and research
Deduction
Going from the general to the specific
Using general principles to suggest specific outcomes
Induction
Going from the specific to the general
Using several specific observations to formulate general principles
Chapter 1
R\ship= relationship.
Fundamentals of Social Research Methods
The different methods of acquiring knowledge
For society to progress new knowledge is developed.
Scientists create a set question that they intend to utilize to find answers to gain knowledge and
help understand ourselves and our environment.
They find these questions with systemic rational thought and observation.
Epistemology –the study of ways of knowing about the world.
Non-scientific methods.
Method of authority.
When using this method people trust the knowledge and experience of the important people.
E.g., Trusting in the elderly, kings, political leaders& parents.
Critique: this method enables one to hide the power of their knowledge, its underlying ideologies, and
their weakness in judgment.
Mystical method
People seek knowledge by referring to individuals who are socially or politically defined as
qualified producers of knowledge.
i.e., people in certain villages, including kings, depend on the traditional healers because of their
experience.
Intuitive method
People reason based on their gut about certain occasions.
Though they may struggle to express their gut, they believe that following them will positively
benefit them.
Critique: This method solely depends on one's individual experiences and beliefs as people may reach
different conclusions in the same situation.
Conventional wisdom
All general knowledge or beliefs are accepted
,Critique of non-scientific methods-There is no way of telling which statement is accurate as they all give
reasoning and observation.
Contrasting methods
Rationalistic method
This method is based on human reasoning and logic
As they are believed to have the ability to think logically, that enables us to discover laws
through purely intellectual processes.
Also allows us to know what must be true by principles I.e., in pure math where laws and
principles are discovered without reality but axioms.
is used to create theories about the world.
Critique: Though this method has made a lot of progress in Natural science field it has made little
progress in the social science field.
Empirical method
Only facts that are observed in nature are the foundation of knowledge.
Opposite of the rationalistic method.
One can only ground their knowledge based on what they can see.
It is used to test theories about the world.
Scientific method and its properties.
A knowing process which is a combination of rationalistic and empirical methods.
which utilizes rationalism to develop theories and use empiricism to test them.
Two types of science knowledge's
A priori knowledge
This is the knowledge for earlier before experience.
Does not depend on the experience.
A posteriori
The knowledge we post the experience.
It depends on the experience or empirical evidence.
Two types of research conducted under scientific methods.
Quantitative research
Type of research involves using statistical methods to analyze data.
When conducting quantitative research, the following steps are to be followed.
Step 1
, Describe the object, relationship, or situation. Moreover, the object of the study must
be well represented using empirical methods.
I.e. Seeth acts like a snob.
Step 2
An explanation or statement about the relationship between then described facts
should be revealed using rationalistic methods.
I.e., This is because she is wealthy.
Step 3
A prediction of future events under the defined conditions should be permitted by the
stated explanation.
I.e., if her wealth is taken away, she would act like anyone else.
Step 4
An intelligent intervention is conducted based on correct explanation leading to the
ability to predict events.
I.e., process of removing her wealth Is carried out causing her to act like any other person
which proves that her money was the problem.
Qualitative research
Research that includes collections and analyzing non-numerical data.
i.e., text, video, or audio.
The researcher emphasizes observations and recording of events.
I.e., with Seeth the researcher will want to get to know her and experience the lives of the
affluent.
No priori explanations are given but a posterior at the end.
No predictions or explanations can be tested.
Science assumptions
1.The existence of natural and social laws.
2. These Laws can be discovered by human beings
3.Natural phenomena have natural causes
, Scientific understanding is based on parsimony of ideas: explanations for phenomena
are based on as few assumptions as possible, they are to be as simple as possible
4. New knowledge is accumulated gradually and sequentially.
5.Knowledge and truth are founded on evidence (DATA)
6. Scientific statements must be distinguished from common-sense statements
7. Scientific observation is objective
8. Scientific observation is systematic
NB
Often some characteristics are unknown
Can only predict an event when ALL conditions and circumstances are known
In social sciences it is rare to possess all information
Probability statement: if some conditions are satisfied the event will occur more often
than if some of these conditions were not met
Probabilistic explanation: Explanations that concede some uncertainty
Characteristics of scientific research
Scientific research is:
1.Empirical – each step is based on observation
2.Systematic and logical – observation must be done systematically, and a logical order
followed.
3.Replicable and transmittable – anyone placed in the same circumstances can observe the
same event and by reasoning, arrive at the same explanation and prediction.
The Relationship between theory and research
Deduction
Going from the general to the specific
Using general principles to suggest specific outcomes
Induction
Going from the specific to the general
Using several specific observations to formulate general principles
