Adrenalin: a hormone released from the Behavioural therapy: a key influence on
adrenal glands in response to stress or behaviour is the previous learning process,
excitement. It is also known as epinephrine, so behavioural therapy aims to
and is a medication, hormone and produce a new set of more desirable
neurotransmitter. Common side effects behaviours
include shakiness, anxiety, sweating; a fast Bias: differences in behaviour (responses),
heart rate and high blood pressure may feelings or cognition that are caused by an
occur. Strong emotions such as fear or anger extraneous factor rather than the variable
can cause adrenaline to be released into the under investigation. See also response bias,
bloodstream social desirability bias.
Alternative hypothesis: the testable Bystander: a person who is present at, but
statement which predicts a difference or may not be directly involved in, a particular
relationship between variables in a particular situation. ‘Bystander apathy’ or the
investigation ‘bystander effect’ refers to the actions of
Altruistic: acting helpfully towards others bystanders who don’t help others in the
without obvious benefit to oneself, e.g. event of an emergency.
chasing after a stranger in order to return Case study: a detailed investigation of one
their wallet, which involves no guarantee of instance, usually a single person (but
reward alternatively a single family, company or
Amygdala: part of the brain involved in event). These may be rare or instances that
emotional responses could not be created artificially but can
Attention: the concentration of mental provide useful information. It uses a range
effort on a particular stimulus. It may be of techniques such as interviewing,
focused or divided. observation and testing
Autism (or autistic spectrum disorder, Experiment: an investigation looking for a
ASD): developmental disorders causal relationship in which an independent
characterised by difficulty in social, variable is manipulated and is expected to be
communicative and imaginative areas. They responsible for changes in the dependent
are also associated with repetitive physical variable
behaviour Independent variable: the factor under
Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ): a investigation in an experiment which is
self-report questionnaire with scores ranging manipulated to create two or more
from 0 to 50. A higher score suggests that conditions (levels) and is expected to be
the person completing it has more autistic responsible for changes in the dependent
traits variable
Aversive stimuli: unpleasant stimuli that an Causal relationship: (cause and effect
individual would choose to avoid. They relationship) A relationship between two
should not generally be used in animal variables in which a change in one variable
studies is responsible for a change in the other
, variable (the effect). This is seen in Continuous reinforcement: when a learner
experiments, in which the IV causes receives a reward each time they perform a
changes in the DV but not in correlations desirable behaviour. It is one of several
Ceiling effect: this occurs when a test is too possible schedules of reinforcement.
easy and all participants in a condition score Control: a way to keep a potential
the top score. This is problematic as it does extraneous variable constant. In an
not allow the research to differentiate experiment this would prevent the variable
between participants from affecting the DV in addition to or
Classical conditioning: learning through instead of the IV. This makes the study more
association, studied in both humans and valid because it means the experimenter
animals. A new stimulus, which initially would be more likely to be able to find a
has no effect (the neutral stimulus, NS), cause and effect relationship.
becomes associated with another stimulus Control condition: a level of the IV in an
(the unconditioned stimulus, UCS). The experiment from which the IV is absent. It is
UCS already produces a response (the compared to one or more experimental
unconditioned response, UCR), which is condition(s).
often an innate (instinctive) reaction. Control group: often used in experiments,
Following pairing of the UCS and NS, the this group does not receive the manipulation
NS will produce a response similar to the of the independent variable and can
UCR, so the NS becomes known as the be used for comparison with the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the newly experimental group or groups.
learned response, the conditioned response Controlled observation: a study conducted
Closed questions: questionnaire, interview by watching the participants’ behaviour in a
or test items that produce quantitative data. situation in which the social or physical
They have only a few, stated alternative environment has been manipulated by the
responses and no opportunity to expand on researchers. It can be conducted in either the
answers participants’ normal environment or in an
Confederate: someone who is playing a role artificial situation
in a piece of research and has been Correlation: a research method which looks
instructed as to how to behave by the for a relationship between two measured
researcher. variables. A change in one variable is related
Confidentiality: an ethical guideline stating to a change in the other (although these
that participants’ results and personal changes cannot be assumed to be causal).
information should be kept safely and not Cost–benefit model: a decision making
released to anyone outside the study. process in which a person weighs up the
Confounding variables: extraneous factors advantages and disadvantages of helping. If
that affect the performance of participants. it seems beneficial to help, then the person is
In an experiment they would therefore affect more likely to do so; if the risks are too
scores on the DV, and so could obscure the great, they may not help
effect of the IV
adrenal glands in response to stress or behaviour is the previous learning process,
excitement. It is also known as epinephrine, so behavioural therapy aims to
and is a medication, hormone and produce a new set of more desirable
neurotransmitter. Common side effects behaviours
include shakiness, anxiety, sweating; a fast Bias: differences in behaviour (responses),
heart rate and high blood pressure may feelings or cognition that are caused by an
occur. Strong emotions such as fear or anger extraneous factor rather than the variable
can cause adrenaline to be released into the under investigation. See also response bias,
bloodstream social desirability bias.
Alternative hypothesis: the testable Bystander: a person who is present at, but
statement which predicts a difference or may not be directly involved in, a particular
relationship between variables in a particular situation. ‘Bystander apathy’ or the
investigation ‘bystander effect’ refers to the actions of
Altruistic: acting helpfully towards others bystanders who don’t help others in the
without obvious benefit to oneself, e.g. event of an emergency.
chasing after a stranger in order to return Case study: a detailed investigation of one
their wallet, which involves no guarantee of instance, usually a single person (but
reward alternatively a single family, company or
Amygdala: part of the brain involved in event). These may be rare or instances that
emotional responses could not be created artificially but can
Attention: the concentration of mental provide useful information. It uses a range
effort on a particular stimulus. It may be of techniques such as interviewing,
focused or divided. observation and testing
Autism (or autistic spectrum disorder, Experiment: an investigation looking for a
ASD): developmental disorders causal relationship in which an independent
characterised by difficulty in social, variable is manipulated and is expected to be
communicative and imaginative areas. They responsible for changes in the dependent
are also associated with repetitive physical variable
behaviour Independent variable: the factor under
Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ): a investigation in an experiment which is
self-report questionnaire with scores ranging manipulated to create two or more
from 0 to 50. A higher score suggests that conditions (levels) and is expected to be
the person completing it has more autistic responsible for changes in the dependent
traits variable
Aversive stimuli: unpleasant stimuli that an Causal relationship: (cause and effect
individual would choose to avoid. They relationship) A relationship between two
should not generally be used in animal variables in which a change in one variable
studies is responsible for a change in the other
, variable (the effect). This is seen in Continuous reinforcement: when a learner
experiments, in which the IV causes receives a reward each time they perform a
changes in the DV but not in correlations desirable behaviour. It is one of several
Ceiling effect: this occurs when a test is too possible schedules of reinforcement.
easy and all participants in a condition score Control: a way to keep a potential
the top score. This is problematic as it does extraneous variable constant. In an
not allow the research to differentiate experiment this would prevent the variable
between participants from affecting the DV in addition to or
Classical conditioning: learning through instead of the IV. This makes the study more
association, studied in both humans and valid because it means the experimenter
animals. A new stimulus, which initially would be more likely to be able to find a
has no effect (the neutral stimulus, NS), cause and effect relationship.
becomes associated with another stimulus Control condition: a level of the IV in an
(the unconditioned stimulus, UCS). The experiment from which the IV is absent. It is
UCS already produces a response (the compared to one or more experimental
unconditioned response, UCR), which is condition(s).
often an innate (instinctive) reaction. Control group: often used in experiments,
Following pairing of the UCS and NS, the this group does not receive the manipulation
NS will produce a response similar to the of the independent variable and can
UCR, so the NS becomes known as the be used for comparison with the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the newly experimental group or groups.
learned response, the conditioned response Controlled observation: a study conducted
Closed questions: questionnaire, interview by watching the participants’ behaviour in a
or test items that produce quantitative data. situation in which the social or physical
They have only a few, stated alternative environment has been manipulated by the
responses and no opportunity to expand on researchers. It can be conducted in either the
answers participants’ normal environment or in an
Confederate: someone who is playing a role artificial situation
in a piece of research and has been Correlation: a research method which looks
instructed as to how to behave by the for a relationship between two measured
researcher. variables. A change in one variable is related
Confidentiality: an ethical guideline stating to a change in the other (although these
that participants’ results and personal changes cannot be assumed to be causal).
information should be kept safely and not Cost–benefit model: a decision making
released to anyone outside the study. process in which a person weighs up the
Confounding variables: extraneous factors advantages and disadvantages of helping. If
that affect the performance of participants. it seems beneficial to help, then the person is
In an experiment they would therefore affect more likely to do so; if the risks are too
scores on the DV, and so could obscure the great, they may not help
effect of the IV
