MTO-E-MAW: Methoden voor kwalitatief onderzoek (424239)
Qualitative Research Methods (424012)
Tilburg University Lectures 2021-2022
+ Sample questions
Index
Lecture 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 2
Lecture 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Lecture 3 .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Lecture 4 ................................................................................................................................................ 11
Lecture 5 ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Lecture 6 ................................................................................................................................................ 17
Lecture 7 ................................................................................................................................................ 19
Lecture 8 ................................................................................................................................................ 22
Lecture 9 ................................................................................................................................................ 25
Lecture 10 .............................................................................................................................................. 27
Lecture 11 .............................................................................................................................................. 28
Wrap-up lecture .................................................................................................................................... 31
Sample questions .................................................................................................................................. 35
Extra: A historical timeline of the different paradigms ......................................................................... 40
,Lecture 1
Introduction to qualitative research
People are very complex. To understand people, we need qualitative research.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSPuY6kfxd4
The contrast between qualitative and quantitative research:
Qualitative Quantitative
Understanding how and why Measuring how many and causality
Theory emergent (inductive) Theory testing (deductive)
Words & text Variables & numbers
Participants view Researcher’s view
Proximity Distance
Process Static
Unstructured Structured
Rich, deep data Hard, reliable data
Interpretation Measuring
The contrast between qualitative and quantitative research questions:
Qualitative Quantitative
Open questions (starting with how/what) Hypotheses or closed questions
Focused on understanding and developing Focused on measuring, causality and
concepts correlation.
Dealing with complex matters for which people Dealing with subjects that can be
need many words to address these; such as operationalized into variables; such as
experiences and meanings. satisfaction, motivation and perception.
Ontology and epistemology
Before doing research, we need to believe that somethings exists (ontology) and we need to believe
that we can acquire knowledge about that what we believe exists (epistemology).
- Ontology: Assumptions about the nature of reality. Ontological beliefs influence the kind of
topics you want to research and the way you want to do research. Ontological beliefs influence
epistemological beliefs. Two major positions in social science are:
o Objectivism/Realism
E.g. It’s a dog.
o Constructionism/Idealism
E.g. It’s a painting of something that we recognize as being a dog.
- Epistemology: Assumptions about the way we can acquire knowledge about things.
Ontology Epistemology
Objectivism/Realism Empiricism (Quantitative)
Constructionism/Idealism Interpretivism (Qualitative)
,Paradigms
Ontology and epistemology together form paradigms. It is very useful to know the implications of
adopting a particular paradigm, and to recognize research traditions and paradigms in publications.
An overview of the different forms of objectivism and constructionism:
Form of Framework Form of analysis Example (A study
ontology about stigma)
Objectivism Positivism: There is a reality Quantitative research ‘Measuring mental
that is independent. We can illness stigma’.
know it by using our senses.
Postpositivism: There is a Quantitative research,
reality that is independent. with sometimes
We can (partly) know it. qualitative analysis.
Constructionism Interpretivism: Social reality Interpretive forms of ‘Exploring the
is constructed, we can analysis: experience of people
interpret how people - Thematic analysis vlogging about
attribute meaning. - Phenomenology mental illness’.
Constructionism: Social Structural forms of ‘A visual culture of
reality is constructed, we analysis: stigma: Critically
can reconstruct and - Narrative analysis examining
deconstruct their - Discourse analysis representations of
constructions. - Semiotics mental illness’.
Critical theory: Social reality ‘History of madness’
is constructed. Researchers
are part of it as well and
have to take responsibility.
(Participatory) Action Creative research ‘Wearing the label of
research: Social reality is techniques. mental illness:
constructed. Researchers Community-based
are part of it as well and participatory action
have to take responsibility. research of mental
People should be involved illness stigma’.
in research (ownership).
‘Using theatre to
address mental
illness stigma’.
Other resources
Some videos that can help to better understand the concepts of ontology and epistemology:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9EtzjhJNA0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlUKGRYYZEw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHmvMtc_Ybg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfhORwlRB4Q
, Lecture 2
Quality criteria in quantitative research
(Post)positivists have a preference for numbers and measurement. They judge ‘good research’ by
using the following terms:
- Validity: Findings are an accurate reflection of reality. It measures what it should measure.
- Replicability: Another researcher will be able to conduct the same research.
- Reliability: When another researcher will conduct the research, the results will be the same.
Quality criteria in qualitative research
Some researchers conducting qualitative research still speak of studies in terms of validity,
replicability and reliability. Other researchers argue that these concepts are too much associated
with quantitative research. Terms that can be used to replace them (all part of ‘trustworthiness’):
1. Credibility: - Prolonged engagement & persistent observation: Spending enough
Confidence in time and focusing on aspects relevant to the issue being studied.
the truth of the - Triangulation: Using multiple datasources to produce understanding.
findings. - Peer debriefing: Exposing oneself to a disinterest peer in a manner
paralleling an analytical session for the purpose of exploring aspects of
the inquiry that might otherwise remain explicit.
- Negative case analysis: Analysis of deviant cases may revise, broaden
and confirm the patterns emerging from data analysis.
- Referential adequacy: Checking interpretations against data that have
not been analysed yet.
- Member checking or Respondent validation: Data, interpretations and
conclusions are tested with members of those groups from which the
data was originally obtained.
2. Transferability: - Thick description: By describing a phenomenon in sufficient detail. The
The data has reader can begin to evaluate the extent to which the conclusions drawn
applicability in are transferable to other times, settings, situations and people.
other contexts.
3. Dependability: - Inquiry audit: External audits involve having a researcher not involved in
The findings the research process examine both the process and product of the
are consistent research study. This is only possible of enough detail about the process
and can be is available, and if data are stored well.
repeated.
4. Confirmability: - Confirmability audit: External audits involve having a researcher not
A degree of involved in the research process examine both the process and product
neutrality (no of the research study.
biases or - Audit trail: Transparent description of the research steps taken from the
interests). start of a research project to the development and reporting of findings.
- Triangulation: Rather than seeing triangulation as a method for
validation, qualitative researchers generally use this technique to ensure
that an account is rich, robust, comprehensive and well-developed.
- Reflexivity: Attitude of attending systematically to the context of
knowledge construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at
every step of the research process.
Some researchers argue that even trustworthiness is not enough to judge quality. Action-researchers
also value the usefulness of the outcomes.
Qualitative Research Methods (424012)
Tilburg University Lectures 2021-2022
+ Sample questions
Index
Lecture 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 2
Lecture 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Lecture 3 .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Lecture 4 ................................................................................................................................................ 11
Lecture 5 ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Lecture 6 ................................................................................................................................................ 17
Lecture 7 ................................................................................................................................................ 19
Lecture 8 ................................................................................................................................................ 22
Lecture 9 ................................................................................................................................................ 25
Lecture 10 .............................................................................................................................................. 27
Lecture 11 .............................................................................................................................................. 28
Wrap-up lecture .................................................................................................................................... 31
Sample questions .................................................................................................................................. 35
Extra: A historical timeline of the different paradigms ......................................................................... 40
,Lecture 1
Introduction to qualitative research
People are very complex. To understand people, we need qualitative research.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSPuY6kfxd4
The contrast between qualitative and quantitative research:
Qualitative Quantitative
Understanding how and why Measuring how many and causality
Theory emergent (inductive) Theory testing (deductive)
Words & text Variables & numbers
Participants view Researcher’s view
Proximity Distance
Process Static
Unstructured Structured
Rich, deep data Hard, reliable data
Interpretation Measuring
The contrast between qualitative and quantitative research questions:
Qualitative Quantitative
Open questions (starting with how/what) Hypotheses or closed questions
Focused on understanding and developing Focused on measuring, causality and
concepts correlation.
Dealing with complex matters for which people Dealing with subjects that can be
need many words to address these; such as operationalized into variables; such as
experiences and meanings. satisfaction, motivation and perception.
Ontology and epistemology
Before doing research, we need to believe that somethings exists (ontology) and we need to believe
that we can acquire knowledge about that what we believe exists (epistemology).
- Ontology: Assumptions about the nature of reality. Ontological beliefs influence the kind of
topics you want to research and the way you want to do research. Ontological beliefs influence
epistemological beliefs. Two major positions in social science are:
o Objectivism/Realism
E.g. It’s a dog.
o Constructionism/Idealism
E.g. It’s a painting of something that we recognize as being a dog.
- Epistemology: Assumptions about the way we can acquire knowledge about things.
Ontology Epistemology
Objectivism/Realism Empiricism (Quantitative)
Constructionism/Idealism Interpretivism (Qualitative)
,Paradigms
Ontology and epistemology together form paradigms. It is very useful to know the implications of
adopting a particular paradigm, and to recognize research traditions and paradigms in publications.
An overview of the different forms of objectivism and constructionism:
Form of Framework Form of analysis Example (A study
ontology about stigma)
Objectivism Positivism: There is a reality Quantitative research ‘Measuring mental
that is independent. We can illness stigma’.
know it by using our senses.
Postpositivism: There is a Quantitative research,
reality that is independent. with sometimes
We can (partly) know it. qualitative analysis.
Constructionism Interpretivism: Social reality Interpretive forms of ‘Exploring the
is constructed, we can analysis: experience of people
interpret how people - Thematic analysis vlogging about
attribute meaning. - Phenomenology mental illness’.
Constructionism: Social Structural forms of ‘A visual culture of
reality is constructed, we analysis: stigma: Critically
can reconstruct and - Narrative analysis examining
deconstruct their - Discourse analysis representations of
constructions. - Semiotics mental illness’.
Critical theory: Social reality ‘History of madness’
is constructed. Researchers
are part of it as well and
have to take responsibility.
(Participatory) Action Creative research ‘Wearing the label of
research: Social reality is techniques. mental illness:
constructed. Researchers Community-based
are part of it as well and participatory action
have to take responsibility. research of mental
People should be involved illness stigma’.
in research (ownership).
‘Using theatre to
address mental
illness stigma’.
Other resources
Some videos that can help to better understand the concepts of ontology and epistemology:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9EtzjhJNA0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlUKGRYYZEw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHmvMtc_Ybg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfhORwlRB4Q
, Lecture 2
Quality criteria in quantitative research
(Post)positivists have a preference for numbers and measurement. They judge ‘good research’ by
using the following terms:
- Validity: Findings are an accurate reflection of reality. It measures what it should measure.
- Replicability: Another researcher will be able to conduct the same research.
- Reliability: When another researcher will conduct the research, the results will be the same.
Quality criteria in qualitative research
Some researchers conducting qualitative research still speak of studies in terms of validity,
replicability and reliability. Other researchers argue that these concepts are too much associated
with quantitative research. Terms that can be used to replace them (all part of ‘trustworthiness’):
1. Credibility: - Prolonged engagement & persistent observation: Spending enough
Confidence in time and focusing on aspects relevant to the issue being studied.
the truth of the - Triangulation: Using multiple datasources to produce understanding.
findings. - Peer debriefing: Exposing oneself to a disinterest peer in a manner
paralleling an analytical session for the purpose of exploring aspects of
the inquiry that might otherwise remain explicit.
- Negative case analysis: Analysis of deviant cases may revise, broaden
and confirm the patterns emerging from data analysis.
- Referential adequacy: Checking interpretations against data that have
not been analysed yet.
- Member checking or Respondent validation: Data, interpretations and
conclusions are tested with members of those groups from which the
data was originally obtained.
2. Transferability: - Thick description: By describing a phenomenon in sufficient detail. The
The data has reader can begin to evaluate the extent to which the conclusions drawn
applicability in are transferable to other times, settings, situations and people.
other contexts.
3. Dependability: - Inquiry audit: External audits involve having a researcher not involved in
The findings the research process examine both the process and product of the
are consistent research study. This is only possible of enough detail about the process
and can be is available, and if data are stored well.
repeated.
4. Confirmability: - Confirmability audit: External audits involve having a researcher not
A degree of involved in the research process examine both the process and product
neutrality (no of the research study.
biases or - Audit trail: Transparent description of the research steps taken from the
interests). start of a research project to the development and reporting of findings.
- Triangulation: Rather than seeing triangulation as a method for
validation, qualitative researchers generally use this technique to ensure
that an account is rich, robust, comprehensive and well-developed.
- Reflexivity: Attitude of attending systematically to the context of
knowledge construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at
every step of the research process.
Some researchers argue that even trustworthiness is not enough to judge quality. Action-researchers
also value the usefulness of the outcomes.
