Samenvatting Marieb - human anatomy & physiology
H1 The human body: an orientation
Anatomy: studies the structure of body parts and their relationship to one
another
Physiology: concerns the function of the body; how the body parts work and
carry out their activities
Topics of anatomy
Macroscopic anatomy: study of large body structures visible to the naked eye
Regional anatomy: structures in a region of the body are examined at the same
time
Systemic anatomy: body structure studies system by system
Surface anatomy: study of internal structures related to the overlying skin
surface
Microscopic anatomy: studies structures too small for the naked eye
Cytology: considers the cells
Histology: study of tissue
Developmental anatomy: traces structural changes in the body
Embryology: concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
Topics of physiology
Renal physiology: concerns kidney function and urine production
Neurophysiology: explains the working of the nervous system
Cardiovascular physiology: examines the operation of the heart and blood
vessels
Complementarity of structure and function
Physiology and anatomy are inseparable because function always reflects
structure
Tissue level: tissues are groups of similar cells that have a common function
The basic four tissue types of humans are:
Epithelium, muscle, connective tissue and nervous tissue
Organ level: organs are composed of at least two tissue types
Organ system level: organs that work together to accomplish a common
purpose
Necessary life functions
The body needs to maintain its boundaries so that its inside remains distinct
form its outside
Movement is needed to propel ourselves from one place to another, also blood
and food are propelled through internal systems by movement.
Responsiveness: ability to sense change in the environment
Digestion: the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules
Metabolism: includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
Excretion: process of removing waste
Reproduction: 1. original cells divide producing two identical daughter cells
2. reproduction of the human organism (making a new person) is the
major task of the reproductive system
Growth: an increase of size of a body part or the whole organism
,Survival needs
Nutrients: used for energy and cell building
Oxygen: chemical reactions that release energy are oxidative reactions
Water: provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions
Normal body temperature: otherwise metabolic reactions will slow down or go
to fast, death can occur at extreme temperature changes
Homeostasis: the balance of all metabolic reactions
Homeostatic control
Receptor: type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to
changes
Control center: determines the set point, analyzes the input it receives and
determines the appropriate response
Effector: provides the control center's response
Negative feedback mechanisms: the output shuts off the original effect or
reduces its intensity
Positive feedback mechanisms: the result or response enhances the original
stimulus
H2 Chemistry comes alive
Proteins
Protein: basic structural material of the body
Amino acids: building blocks of proteins
Peptide bond: c-n binding
Macromolecules: large complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10.000
amino acids
Structural levels of proteins
Primary structure: linear sequence of amino acids composing a polypeptide
chain
Secondary structure: alpha (α)-helix and beta (β)-pleated sheet
Tertiary structure: (α)-helix or (β)-pleated regions fold upon one another to
produce a compact molecule
Quaternary structure: when two or more polypeptide chains (tertiary)
aggregate to form a complex protein
Fibrous protein(structural protein): are extended and strandlike, most
secondary and some tertiary or quaternary structure, the chief building materials
of the body
Globular proteins(functional proteins): compact and spherical proteins with
at least tertiary structures
Molecular chaperones: class of unrelated globular proteins, helps proteins to
achieve their functional three-dimensional structure
Enzymes and enzyme activity
Enzymes: globular proteins that act as biological catalysts, they regulate and
accelerate biochemical reactions
Substrate: substance on which an enzyme acts
Activation energy: energy to prime a chemical reaction
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
Nucleic acid: composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus,
include two major classes of molecules: deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and
ribonucleic acid(RNA)
, Nucleotides: structural units of nucleic acids
Five varieties of nitrogen-containing bases can contribute to nucleotide structure;
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil
Complementary bases: A bonds to T or U, and C bonds to G
Adenosine triphosphate(ATP)
ATP: contains energy in its bonds gained during the glucose catabolism
When ATP is hydrolyzed it provides energy for cellular needs
H3 Cells: the living units
The cellular basis of life
Cell theory: a cell is the basic unit of living organisms
Generalized or composite cell: all cells have the same basic parts such as; a
plasma membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus
The plasma membrane: structure
Plasma membrane: defines the extent of a cell
Fluid mosaic model: depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin
structure composed of a double layer of lipid molecules (phospholipids)
Membrane proteins
Integral proteins: are firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer
Peripheral protein: not embedded in the lipid bilayer but are attached loosely
to integral proteins
Lipid rafts
Are dynamic assemblies of saturated phospholipids
The glycocalyx
Glycocalyx: describes the fuzzy, sticky carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface
(glycoproteins)
Cell junctions
Tight junction: series of integral protein molecules in the plasma membrane
that fuse together with the adjacent cell, forming an impermeable junction
Desmosomes: anchoring junctions, prevent separation between cells
Gap junction (or nexus): adjacent cells are connected by hollow
cylinders(connexons), helps communicate between cells
The plasma membrane: membrane transport
Interstitial fluid: extracellular fluid
Selectively of differentially permeable membrane: allows some substances
to pass while excluding others
Passive processes: substances cross the membrane without any energy input
Active processes: energy is provided by the cell (usually ATP) to move
substances across the membrane
Passive processes
Diffusion: tendency of molecules to move from high to low concentration down
or along their concentration gradient
Simple diffusion: nonpolar and lipidsoluble substances diffuse directly through
the lipid bilayer
H1 The human body: an orientation
Anatomy: studies the structure of body parts and their relationship to one
another
Physiology: concerns the function of the body; how the body parts work and
carry out their activities
Topics of anatomy
Macroscopic anatomy: study of large body structures visible to the naked eye
Regional anatomy: structures in a region of the body are examined at the same
time
Systemic anatomy: body structure studies system by system
Surface anatomy: study of internal structures related to the overlying skin
surface
Microscopic anatomy: studies structures too small for the naked eye
Cytology: considers the cells
Histology: study of tissue
Developmental anatomy: traces structural changes in the body
Embryology: concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
Topics of physiology
Renal physiology: concerns kidney function and urine production
Neurophysiology: explains the working of the nervous system
Cardiovascular physiology: examines the operation of the heart and blood
vessels
Complementarity of structure and function
Physiology and anatomy are inseparable because function always reflects
structure
Tissue level: tissues are groups of similar cells that have a common function
The basic four tissue types of humans are:
Epithelium, muscle, connective tissue and nervous tissue
Organ level: organs are composed of at least two tissue types
Organ system level: organs that work together to accomplish a common
purpose
Necessary life functions
The body needs to maintain its boundaries so that its inside remains distinct
form its outside
Movement is needed to propel ourselves from one place to another, also blood
and food are propelled through internal systems by movement.
Responsiveness: ability to sense change in the environment
Digestion: the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules
Metabolism: includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
Excretion: process of removing waste
Reproduction: 1. original cells divide producing two identical daughter cells
2. reproduction of the human organism (making a new person) is the
major task of the reproductive system
Growth: an increase of size of a body part or the whole organism
,Survival needs
Nutrients: used for energy and cell building
Oxygen: chemical reactions that release energy are oxidative reactions
Water: provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions
Normal body temperature: otherwise metabolic reactions will slow down or go
to fast, death can occur at extreme temperature changes
Homeostasis: the balance of all metabolic reactions
Homeostatic control
Receptor: type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to
changes
Control center: determines the set point, analyzes the input it receives and
determines the appropriate response
Effector: provides the control center's response
Negative feedback mechanisms: the output shuts off the original effect or
reduces its intensity
Positive feedback mechanisms: the result or response enhances the original
stimulus
H2 Chemistry comes alive
Proteins
Protein: basic structural material of the body
Amino acids: building blocks of proteins
Peptide bond: c-n binding
Macromolecules: large complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10.000
amino acids
Structural levels of proteins
Primary structure: linear sequence of amino acids composing a polypeptide
chain
Secondary structure: alpha (α)-helix and beta (β)-pleated sheet
Tertiary structure: (α)-helix or (β)-pleated regions fold upon one another to
produce a compact molecule
Quaternary structure: when two or more polypeptide chains (tertiary)
aggregate to form a complex protein
Fibrous protein(structural protein): are extended and strandlike, most
secondary and some tertiary or quaternary structure, the chief building materials
of the body
Globular proteins(functional proteins): compact and spherical proteins with
at least tertiary structures
Molecular chaperones: class of unrelated globular proteins, helps proteins to
achieve their functional three-dimensional structure
Enzymes and enzyme activity
Enzymes: globular proteins that act as biological catalysts, they regulate and
accelerate biochemical reactions
Substrate: substance on which an enzyme acts
Activation energy: energy to prime a chemical reaction
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
Nucleic acid: composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus,
include two major classes of molecules: deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and
ribonucleic acid(RNA)
, Nucleotides: structural units of nucleic acids
Five varieties of nitrogen-containing bases can contribute to nucleotide structure;
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil
Complementary bases: A bonds to T or U, and C bonds to G
Adenosine triphosphate(ATP)
ATP: contains energy in its bonds gained during the glucose catabolism
When ATP is hydrolyzed it provides energy for cellular needs
H3 Cells: the living units
The cellular basis of life
Cell theory: a cell is the basic unit of living organisms
Generalized or composite cell: all cells have the same basic parts such as; a
plasma membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus
The plasma membrane: structure
Plasma membrane: defines the extent of a cell
Fluid mosaic model: depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin
structure composed of a double layer of lipid molecules (phospholipids)
Membrane proteins
Integral proteins: are firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer
Peripheral protein: not embedded in the lipid bilayer but are attached loosely
to integral proteins
Lipid rafts
Are dynamic assemblies of saturated phospholipids
The glycocalyx
Glycocalyx: describes the fuzzy, sticky carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface
(glycoproteins)
Cell junctions
Tight junction: series of integral protein molecules in the plasma membrane
that fuse together with the adjacent cell, forming an impermeable junction
Desmosomes: anchoring junctions, prevent separation between cells
Gap junction (or nexus): adjacent cells are connected by hollow
cylinders(connexons), helps communicate between cells
The plasma membrane: membrane transport
Interstitial fluid: extracellular fluid
Selectively of differentially permeable membrane: allows some substances
to pass while excluding others
Passive processes: substances cross the membrane without any energy input
Active processes: energy is provided by the cell (usually ATP) to move
substances across the membrane
Passive processes
Diffusion: tendency of molecules to move from high to low concentration down
or along their concentration gradient
Simple diffusion: nonpolar and lipidsoluble substances diffuse directly through
the lipid bilayer
