PED3701_ Psychology Of Education_ EXAM MEMORANDUM 2021.

PED3701_ Psychology Of Education_ EXAM MEMORANDUM 2021. Discuss moral development in adolescence under the following headings: 1.4.1 Define moral development. (2) page 110 The word ‘moral’ is derived from the Latin moralis, meaning ‘habit’ or ‘manner’ (Thiroux 1980). This habit or manner is evaluated by the adolescent and other people. Morals are therefore an individual’s evaluation of what is right and wrong, which involves the acceptance of rules and governs one’s behaviour towards others (Bloom 2010; Young & Saxe 2011). Moral development is based on the customs, manners or patterns of behaviour that conform to the standard of the group (Hurlock 1973), and is a reflection of the way in which people learn to distinguish between right and wrong. Moral development can be described as the development of moral judgement and behaviour. Moral judgement is the reasoning and decision making about moral issues (Steinberg et al. 2011). 1.4.2 Provide the three (3) basic components of morality and briefly explain what each component means. (3) page 110 Developmental scientists distinguish between the following three basic components of morality (Sigelman & Rider 2012): • Affective component: This consists of feelings of, for example, guilt, that surround right and wrong actions and that motivate moral thoughts and action. • Cognitive component: This is how one conceptualises right and wrong and makes decisions about how to behave. • Behavioural component: This reflects on how one behaves in situations where morals are concerned. 1.5 What are the main characteristics of creative individuals? Page 63 (5) The main characteristics of creative individuals can be summarised as follows: (Landau 1990; Papalia & Feldman 2012; Sigelman & Rider 2012; Sternberg & Sternberg 2012): • a readiness to work hard and work long hours • intelligence, which is usually above average, though not necessarily in the upper limits, for creativity is not dependent on intelligence alone • fluency regarding repetition and processing of existing knowledge • originality to produce extraordinary ideas, solve problems in a unique way and use things in an exceptional and novel manner; often occurs through sudden insight and is linked to the power of the imagination to break away from fixed and inflexible perceptions • flexibility, pliability and latitude of thought, using a variety of approaches; moving easily from one category to another; able to readily depart from the common, established and usual working methods; divergent thought as a prerequisite for creativity • elaboration or the ability to handle a specific problem in its finest detail; formulate, adapt, embroider and implement; obtain an imaginative, penetrating perspective with new ideas, culminating in a new creative achievement • sensitivity to the environment and to one’s own feelings and emotions; note things that are overlooked by others and exhibit a new appreciation; an alertness and consciousness of the environment; perceive, look for, calculate and absorb; feelings of inner conflict and chaos • open to new experiences, self-confident, impulsive, ambitious, driven and hostile. These characteristics clearly indicate that creativity cannot be determined by means of intelligence tests. IQ tests do tell us something about a person’s potential, but they don’t tell us everything, perhaps not even most things (Papalia & Feldman 2012; Siegelman & Rider 2012) 1.6 Discuss the basic principles teachers should bear in mind when dealing with the suicide ideation and attempts of adolescents. Page 144 (5) It is important that teachers take suicide ideation and attempts seriously. The following basic principles should also be borne in mind: • Be observant and sensitive in order to help and support your learners cope with challenges, such as depression and anxiety. • Take their suicidal thoughts and actions seriously. • Enhance adolescents’ self-concept wherever and whenever possible thought encouragement, caring, focused attention and warm personal regard. • Encourage adolescents to develop a special interest or skill, such as sports and arts, that can serve as an inner source of pride and self-esteem. • Use proactive intervention and problem solving to avoid unnecessary stress. • Help adolescents to form effective social support networks, for example, by cultivating good friendships, discussion groups and support groups. • Acknowledge adolescents’ to express their feelings constructively. • Seek help from health-care practitioners, such as a psychologist and a psychiatrist. (30) Reference Sources: Passer & Smith (2001); Papalia & Feldman (2012); Santrock (2013); Slavin (2012) (Adolescent, The ePDF UNISA Custom Edition, ) QUESTION 2 2.1. Discuss formal operational thought according to Piaget under the following headings: (Characteristics of the formal-operational phase) 2.1.1 Abstract thought (3) page 38 - 39 Adolescents in the formal-operational phase are capable of abstract thoughts dealing with abstract concepts and understanding abstract relationships. For example, they: • think and reason about such concepts as love and hate, justice and injustice. • comprehend relationships between such concepts as mass, energy and force. • begin to display an understanding of the rationales, intentions and behaviours of other people and start to question them. Adolescents question and examine social, political and religious systems. • have more advanced spatio-temporal mobility. They are capable of projecting into the past and the future, and of creating new, original situations. • are far more critical about themselves. They constantly measure themselves against ideal models (for example the Barbie doll image) or against the peer group. • are capable of reflecting on their own ideas, and they try to penetrate the conceptual world of others. • are extremely sensitive about the impression they make on others. Besides reflecting on their own ideas, adolescents try to enter imaginatively into the world of other people’s ideas. • want to be part of the group. • are egocentric in that they think others are just as preoccupied with them as they are with themselves. This egocentricity differs from that displayed in the concrete-operational phase in that they persuade themselves that others share their favourite concerns. 2.1.2 Propositional thought (3) page 40 Piaget sees the relationship between reality and possibility as the primary characteristic of the formaloperational phase. It is decisive for the other characteristics of this phase (Inhelder & Piaget 1958). Piaget also maintains that the possible is primary and the real is secondary for the adolescent. Questions concerning the future now acquire immediacy, and the formal-operational adolescent: • adds concern about ‘can’ or ‘maybe’ to the present concern about the actual ‘here-and-now’ • investigates certain accepted facts, formulates hypotheses and makes deductions and is therefore analytical • understands the arbitrary nature of methods better • tries out alternative problem-solving methods and thus has more dynamic thought processes • takes longer to reach decisions • engages in long conversations and arguments with confidants about decisions. In contrast, concrete-operational adolescents: • cannot contemplate and deal with hypothetical and futuristic problems • tend to adhere rigidly to a particular problem-solving method, even if the correct solution cannot be found. Propositional thought entails substitution of verbal statements for objects. Thus, the importance of language for formal-operational thought can hardly be overestimated. Accordingly, adolescents with this mental capacity: • are capable of understanding and making use of metaphor, satire and double meanings • can appreciate and make use of subtle nuances of humour. Education, experience and personality are important factors in reaching this stage of mental competence. An adolescent who was relatively deprived of opportunities for language experience and discovery in childhood, will therefore be at a relative disadvantage, which will be difficult to overcome. 2.1.3 Hypothetical-deductive thought (2) page 40 Adolescents who are capable of hypothetical-deductive thought can isolate all the variables involved in solving a problem systematically and then combine them to determine their individual or combined influence. Again, different variables are tested and the results compared. In other words, they generate new possibilities and form hypotheses in order to answer questions or to solve a problem. They are therefore capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning. Deductive thought is explained concisely in Figure 3.1 on the next page. Adolescents who have reached this phase are capable of formulating and testing hypotheses, after which results are compared. They proceed deductively in a formal, scientific manner. By contrast, adolescents in the concrete-operational phase tend to be unsystematic in dealing with the problem. Hypothetical-deductive thought is important for the study of science and a prerequisite for researchers. 2.1.4 Interpropositional thought (2) page 40 Adolescents who are capable of interpropositional logic can test for logical consistency, and can identify inconsistencies between statements (propositions). For example: All smokers die of cancer. David is a smoker. He will die of cancer. Interpropositional logic enables the adolescent to test these statements and to conclude that they are not invariably true. Despite the logical validity of the statement, all smokers do not die of cancer. In addition to testing verbal statements, adolescents in this phase understand direct or indirect relationships. Adolescents who reach the formal-operational phase begin to understand the inverse proportionality/balance between weight and distance without necessarily having to experiment with material objects to prove it. They comprehend intuitively that if one of two equal weights at opposite ends of the beam balanced on a fulcrum is increased, it must be moved closer to the fulcrum to preserve a state of equilibrium. Adolescents in the concrete-operational phase would perform this experiment by trial and error. 2.2. Discuss identity formation under the following headings: 2.2.1 A definition of identity. (2) page 97 Identity can be defined as the meaning that a person attached to himself or herself as a person. This means that it is the answer to the question, “Who am I?”. The adolescent’s well-organised self-descriptions and differentiated sense of self provide the cognitive foundation for forming an identity. Identity is therefore knowing who and what one is and the knowledge that one is distinguishable from others (Van den Aardweg & Van den Aardweg 1988). Identity is a sense of the self and is concerned with those elements of character or personality that are distinguishing. 2.2.2 The development of a distinct identity in adolescence. (3) page 97 - 98 Identity formation is a lifelong and largely unconscious process. The roots of one’s identity can be traced back to the early experiences of mutuality between the mother and the infant. Identity formation continues throughout childhood through a process of selection and assimilation of childhood identifications. Adolescents spend a lot of time examining themselves. The increase in abstract and idealistic thought serves as a foundation for exploring their identity (Santrock 2013). Research differs on whether girls and boys take different paths in identity formation. Some research suggests that the self-esteem of girls declines during adolescence. However, later research does not support the finding (Papalia, et al. 2006). Further, researchers in South Africa also could not find any differences in the identity formation of urban black and white adolescents (Thom 1988; Myburgh & Anders 1998). 2.2.3 Explain the interaction between the self-image and the ideal image. (3) page 98 It appears that apart from the self-image (the adolescent’s perception of himself or herself at a particular time), there is also the ideal image that represents what the adolescent would like to be. Identification can be seen as an activity that the adolescent is engaged in with a view to reconciling the self-image and the ideal image. Adolescents sometimes tend to over-identify themselves with, for example, members of their peer group, or with other admired figures (ideal image), and to temporarily lose their own identity. That is why some adolescent groups all dress alike, have the same hairstyles and talk and act in the same way. In time, they shift their attention to new identification models that represent values that they intend making their own in the future. 2.2.4 Explain the moratorium on identity development and indicate how it can help the adolescent during identity development. (2) page 98 Identity moratorium is a period of identity development that occurs after the adolescent stage of identity diffusion and is generally considered the longest period of that development. It is a period of active searching and exploring alternatives to current situations. This is seen as a time where a person questions their earlier choices; whether or not to change college majors, whether to marry or remain single, exploration of sexual identity, etc. Once these questions are resolved a person finally approaches the stage of identity achievement in which the individual finds their true sense of self. Society allows adolescents a period, or a psychosocial ‘moratorium’, during which to find themselves and their roles as future adults. This moratorium may also partly explain the public’s tolerance of students’ pranks. During this period, adolescents also have to establish a gender role identity, an occupational identity and an ethnic identity. By being aware of their prospective role in the career world, or as marriage partner and member of a particular cultural group, adolescents acquire the sense that they are part of society and of a larger whole. (20) TOTAL: 50 Chapter 2 - Physical development of the adolescent Puberty – the first phase of adolescence, the point in physical maturation when sexual reproduction is possible  Pubertal changes are beginning of adolescence & puberty. Changes divided in 1. External bodily changes (height, weight) 2. Internal physiological changes (nutritional needs, motor capabilities  Adolescents assign meaning to the changes. The meaning: 1. Influence experience & involvement with body 2. Depend on factors such as early / late maturation, menstruation, erection etc.  Feelings such as joy, pride, shame etc is associated with the changes  Changes cause problems / stress for adolescents: 1. Worry if development will be acceptable 2. Uncoordinated due to irregular growth 3. First menstruation could be traumatic 4. Semen emissions could cause shame 5. Acne as it affects appearance 6. Obesity decrease self-image  To develop identity adolescentsmust 1. Accept changes 2. Integrate changes into the self-image 3. Still feel like the same person (continuity)  Adolescents’ perception of their body could obstruct or improve their self-concept. Self concept is influenced by: 1. What they feel others think of them (humiliated when made fun of) 2. Impression they make on the peer group (conform to social behavior and sometimes appearance and norms of group which determines how the group will behave) Characteristics of physical development *Accelerated growth AG happens during pubescent period (period before adolescence). Various changes takes place which leadsto reproductive maturity. Pituitary gland plays important role and pubescence gradually gives way to puberty. Physical changes happen because glands release hormones such as sex and growth hormones which includes oestrogen and testosterone as well as hormones which forms muscle and bone. ***Growth spurt – hormonal changes result in rapid increase in body length and mass, but proportions of the body changes. 1. Starts between 9 ½ and 14 ½ (generally 10) for girls & 10 ½ and 16 (generally 12 or 13) for boys. Growth spurt lasts about 2 years and sexual maturity is reached soon after the growth spurt ends. 2. Girls reach mature body length 2 years before boys. Girls at 17 and boys at 21 3. Girls are heavier & stronger than boys between ages 11 – 13 but boys catch up due to a more intense growth spurt and are generally taller 4. All skeletal and muscular proportions are affected but in different degrees which causes clumsiness and poor coordination, but this is restored after the growth spurt. 5. Growth rate is influenced by genetic, endocrine, emotional and environmental factors but varies for each person. *Primary & secondary sexual characteristics Secondary characteristics emphasize differences between adults and children and also the outward appearance between men and woman. Eg. Facial hair, breasts, voice etc. There is about a 7 year range for the onset of puberty of girls and about 8 years for boys. Average age for puberty is 12 for girls and 13 / 14 for boys. The process takes about 4 years. Girls Boys Growth spurt (10 – 11) Breast development (10 – 11) Pubic hair (10 – 11) Underarm & body hair (12 – 13) Vaginal discharge (10 – 13) Underarm and sweat glands (12 – 13) Menstruation (11 – 14) Growth spurt (12 – 13) Testes & Scrotum (11 – 12) Skin darkens Penis (12 – 13) Lengthen then thickens Ejaculation (13 – 14) About 1 year after lengthen –no sperm Pubic hair (11 – 12), Underarm & body hair (13 – 15), Facial hair (13 – 15) Underarm and sweat glands (13 – 15) Sweat and body odour Deepening of voice (14 – 15) Adams apple about 1 year before voice breaks *Motor development Body parts grow at different rates. Types of coordination, balance and agility deteriorate due to rapid and uneven growth at the start of puberty. Boys and girls are generally evenly matched in weight and height until adolescence then  Boys are 10kg heavier and taller and outperform in sport  Boys’ muscle tissue double and girls only increase with half Girls tend to be less active during puberty due to clumsiness and could be self-conscious. Also due to different learners developing at different rates, the playing field is not even. ***Secular trend Tendency to grow taller and heavier than their parents and grandparents were. The age at which learners reach puberty decrease and the height at maturity increase. This is common in developed countries or certain population groups and is attributed to healthier diets, better medical service, improved sanitation and less childhood diseased due to immunization. Poverty inhibits the secular trend. Some elements of this maturity have reached a genetically determined limit –limit to human size. Evidence of secular trend can be seen in: 1. Increase in average height 2. Earlier start of growth spurts 3. Earlier changes in vocal quality 4. Earlier start in menstruation (average from 16 to 13) Earlier development can cause problems when physical development overtake psychological development (can’t cope with demands of changes). Exercise could also inhibit early development.