Methods and Approaches to Translation: Introducing Translation Studies
Marcus Tullius Cicero (0046 BC)
Roman rhetorician and politician. He outlines his approach to translation as avoiding
the then normal practice of word-for-word' translation (see St Jerome), which
replaced each individual word of the ST with its closest grammatical equivalent in the
TL to reproduce the 'general style and force of the language'.
In Western translation theory Cicero is often identified with the concepts of literal
translation and free translation.
• Literal' Translation – it is understood as a type of translation that adheres
closely to the surface structures of the ST message, both in terms of semantics
and syntax. (See also 'word-for-word' in St Jerome)
• Free Translation – it attempts to recreate a text that sounds natural in the TL
and therefore does not necessarily adhere closely to the SL elements and
structures. (See also 'sense-for-sense' in St Jerome).
Sutra Translations (0148 - 0265)
The translation of Buddhist Sutras from Sanskrit into Chinese spanned many centuries
and took place in three phases.
The preferred strategy moved from a zhiyî word-for-word rendering (See also 'word-
for-word' in St Jerome) that adhered closely to the SL and often used transliteration
which was difficult to understand; to a yiyi translation, a concept associated with free
translation (see also Free Translation in cicero).
The third phase was mainly dominated by Xuán Zàng (602-664), who advocated a
translation that replicated the style of the original text.
St Jerome (0395)
Theologian and historian who in 395 completed his translation of the Bible. St Jerome
explained that he had translated not “word-for-word” but “sense -for- sense.”
Therefore, setting out the dichotomy that would dominate much of the study of
translation until the 20th century
• Word-for-word’ translation – Refers to a form of translation in which a SL
word is replaced by the closest TL correspondent (see also Literal Translation
in cicero).
• Sense-for-sense Translation – Attempts to translate the meaning of the word
within its context and within the target language requirements (see also Free
Translation in cicero).
1
, Methods and Approaches to Translation: Introducing Translation Studies
Abbāsid period of translation (0750 - 1250)
A period of intense translation activity centered in Baghdad encompassing a range of
languages and topics but centered on the translation into Arabic of Greek scientific
and philosophical material, often with Syriac as an intermediary language.
Initially, a highly literal translation mothed (see cicero) was adopted where the Greek
word was given an equivalent Arabic .when this method proved unsatisfactory ,there
was a shift towards ‘sense-for- sense’ translation (see St Jerome )
John Dryden (1631 - 1700)
Dryden reduce all translation to three categories:
1- metaphrase: Or Word-by-Word and line-by-line translation, which
corresponds to literal translation.
2- paraphrase: Where the author's words are not so strictly followed as his sense
and which more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translation.
3- Imitation: a free adaption.
Alexander Tytler (1747 - 1813)
Tytler defines a good translation as being oriented towards the target language reader
and set out three general laws or rules that should guide a good translation:
1- It should fully represent the ideas of the original.
2- It should render the style of the original.
3- Should have the ease of the original composition
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768 - 1834)
He developed a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but
on the individual's inner feeling and understanding. He distinguished two types of
translator: a Dolmetscher translator who works on commercial texts, whereas an
Ubersetzer translator who works on scholary and artistic text.
Schleiermacher considers there to be only two paths open for the true translation:
(naturalizing) to move the writer to the reader, or (alienating) to move the reader to
the writer; the latter was his preferred approach.
• Alienating – a method of translation in which the value of the foreign is
emphasized by "bending" TL word-usage to try to ensure faithfulness to the
ST.
• Naturalizing – a method of translation which the foreign text is brought in line
with the typical patterns of the TL
2
Marcus Tullius Cicero (0046 BC)
Roman rhetorician and politician. He outlines his approach to translation as avoiding
the then normal practice of word-for-word' translation (see St Jerome), which
replaced each individual word of the ST with its closest grammatical equivalent in the
TL to reproduce the 'general style and force of the language'.
In Western translation theory Cicero is often identified with the concepts of literal
translation and free translation.
• Literal' Translation – it is understood as a type of translation that adheres
closely to the surface structures of the ST message, both in terms of semantics
and syntax. (See also 'word-for-word' in St Jerome)
• Free Translation – it attempts to recreate a text that sounds natural in the TL
and therefore does not necessarily adhere closely to the SL elements and
structures. (See also 'sense-for-sense' in St Jerome).
Sutra Translations (0148 - 0265)
The translation of Buddhist Sutras from Sanskrit into Chinese spanned many centuries
and took place in three phases.
The preferred strategy moved from a zhiyî word-for-word rendering (See also 'word-
for-word' in St Jerome) that adhered closely to the SL and often used transliteration
which was difficult to understand; to a yiyi translation, a concept associated with free
translation (see also Free Translation in cicero).
The third phase was mainly dominated by Xuán Zàng (602-664), who advocated a
translation that replicated the style of the original text.
St Jerome (0395)
Theologian and historian who in 395 completed his translation of the Bible. St Jerome
explained that he had translated not “word-for-word” but “sense -for- sense.”
Therefore, setting out the dichotomy that would dominate much of the study of
translation until the 20th century
• Word-for-word’ translation – Refers to a form of translation in which a SL
word is replaced by the closest TL correspondent (see also Literal Translation
in cicero).
• Sense-for-sense Translation – Attempts to translate the meaning of the word
within its context and within the target language requirements (see also Free
Translation in cicero).
1
, Methods and Approaches to Translation: Introducing Translation Studies
Abbāsid period of translation (0750 - 1250)
A period of intense translation activity centered in Baghdad encompassing a range of
languages and topics but centered on the translation into Arabic of Greek scientific
and philosophical material, often with Syriac as an intermediary language.
Initially, a highly literal translation mothed (see cicero) was adopted where the Greek
word was given an equivalent Arabic .when this method proved unsatisfactory ,there
was a shift towards ‘sense-for- sense’ translation (see St Jerome )
John Dryden (1631 - 1700)
Dryden reduce all translation to three categories:
1- metaphrase: Or Word-by-Word and line-by-line translation, which
corresponds to literal translation.
2- paraphrase: Where the author's words are not so strictly followed as his sense
and which more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translation.
3- Imitation: a free adaption.
Alexander Tytler (1747 - 1813)
Tytler defines a good translation as being oriented towards the target language reader
and set out three general laws or rules that should guide a good translation:
1- It should fully represent the ideas of the original.
2- It should render the style of the original.
3- Should have the ease of the original composition
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768 - 1834)
He developed a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but
on the individual's inner feeling and understanding. He distinguished two types of
translator: a Dolmetscher translator who works on commercial texts, whereas an
Ubersetzer translator who works on scholary and artistic text.
Schleiermacher considers there to be only two paths open for the true translation:
(naturalizing) to move the writer to the reader, or (alienating) to move the reader to
the writer; the latter was his preferred approach.
• Alienating – a method of translation in which the value of the foreign is
emphasized by "bending" TL word-usage to try to ensure faithfulness to the
ST.
• Naturalizing – a method of translation which the foreign text is brought in line
with the typical patterns of the TL
2
