IOP4862 Exam Answers - Summary Managerial and organizational psychology Exam prep

IOP4862 Exam Answers - Summary Managerial and organizational psychology Exam prep. CONFLICT AND STRESS DEFINITION OF STRESS  Stress is an adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological, and/or behavioural deviations  Stress is NOT anxiety, nervous tension or necessarily something bad to be avoided DISCUSS THE GENERAL CATEGORIES OF STRESSORS THAT CAN AFFECT JOB STRESS / CAUSES OF STRESS Extra-organisational stressors  Stressors outside the workplace have been related to negative affect and feelings on the job  Rapid change and economic instability has had a great effect on people's lifestyles which has carried over into their jobs  Because people tend to get caught up in the rush-rush, urbanised, and on-the-go lifestyle of today, their anxiety and wellness in general has deteriorated and the potential for stress on the job has increased  A person's family has a big impact on one's stress levels. For example, illness of a family member or long term strained relations with parents, spouse or children, can act as a significant stressor for employees  Recent trends have also made it difficult for employees to adequately balance the responsibilities of their job and their families  Relocating the family because of transfer or promotion can also lead to stress  For most people, their financial situation has also proved to be a stressor. Many people have been forced to take a second job, or the spouse has had to enter the workplace in order to survive. This situation reduces time for recreational and family activities. The overall effect on employees is more stress on the primary jobs  A diverse workforce is also a stressor. Stress-related issues include differences in beliefs and values, differences in opportunities for rewards or promotions, and perceptions by minority employees of discrimination Organisational stressors  At the organisational level, there are dimensions unique to the organisation that contain potential stressors  These stressors include administrative policies and procedure, organisational structure and design, organisational processes, working conditions  Administrative procedures include downsizing, competitive pressures, merit pay plans, rotating work shifts, advanced technology Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| IOP4862 Compiled by Sharon Winter 071 622 9587  Organisational structure and design includes line staff conflicts, specialisation, role ambiguity and conflict, and no opportunity for advancement  Organisational processes include tight controls, little performance feedback, centralised decision-making, and lack of participation in decision-making  Working conditions include crowded work areas, noise/heat/cold, polluted air, strong odour, unsafe and dangerous conditions, poor lighting Group stressors  Group stressors can be categorised into two areas: lack of group cohesiveness and lack of social support  Lack of group cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is important to employees. If an employee is denied the opportunity for cohesiveness, stress may result  Lack of social support: Employees are greatly affected by the support of fellow members of a cohesive group. By sharing their problems and joys with others, they are much better off.If this type of situation is lacking, stress may occur Individual stressors  Type A characteristics: Type A employees tend to experience more stress. Type A personalities often work long, hard hours under constant deadline pressures, they often take work home at night or on weekends and are unable to relax, they constantly compete with themselves, setting high standards of productivity, and they tend to become frustrated by the work situation, be irritated with the work efforts of others, and to be misunderstood by supervisors  Personal control: People's feelings about their ability to control a situation are important in determining their level of stress. If employees feel that they have less control over the ork environment and over their job, they will experience more stress  Learned helplessness: People are more prone to experience helplessness when they perceive the causes of the lack of control to be related to something about their own personal characteristics, as stable and enduring and to be global and universal (cutting across many situations)  Psychological hardiness: People who are able to cope successfully with extreme stressors seem to have a "hardiness" disposition. Characteristics of hardy people include having commitment, welcoming challenge, and feeling in control. Those who do not possess hardiness may suffer stress and conflict. Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| IOP4862 Compiled by Sharon Winter 071 622 9587 DISCUSS SOME OF THE MAJOR SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT AND INDICATE WHICH YOU THINK IS MOST RELEVANT IN TODAY'S ORGANISATIONS Sources of interpersonal conflict Personal differences  Everyone has a unique background because of his/her upbringing, cultural and family traditions and socialisation processes  Because not everyone has the same background, the differences can be a major source of conflict  These differences often result in disagreements Information deficiency  This source of conflict results from communication breakdown in the organisation  For example, it may happen that two people in conflict are using different information, or that one or both have misinformation Role incompatibility  This type of conflict draws from both intra-individual role conflict and intergroup group conflict Environmental stress  Conflict is more likely to in organisations characterised by scarce resources, downsizing, competitive pressure, or high degrees of uncertainty DISCUSS THE EFFECTS OF STRESS AND INTRA-INDIVIDUAL CONFLICT Physical problems  Immune system problems: lessened ability to fight off illness and infection  Cardiovascular problems: High blood pressure and heart disease  Musculoskeletal problems: tension headaches and back pain  Gastrointestinal problems: Diarrhoea and constipation Psychological problems  High levels of stress may be accompanied by anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, irritability, tension and boredom Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| IOP4862 Compiled by Sharon Winter 071 622 9587  It has been found that stress has the strongest impact on aggressive actions such as sabotage, interpersonal aggression, hostility and complaints  These types of psychological problems from stress are relevant to poor job performance, lowered selfesteem, resentment of supervision, inability to concentrate and make decisions, and make decisions  These outcomes of stress can have a cost effect on the organisation  The outcomes of stress can also have an effect on the styles and effectiveness of managers in key positions. For example, managers under constant stress may become moody and their subordinates may start to avoid them Behavioural problems  Direct behaviours that may accompany high levels of stress include under eating or overeating, sleeplessness, increased smoking and drinking and drug abuse  These behaviours may manifest in tardiness, absenteeism and turnover GIVE AN OVERVIEW OF THE FRUSTRATION MODEL AND HOW IT CAN BE USED TO ANALYSE ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR  Frustration occurs when goal-directed behaviour is blocked before a person reaches a desired goal  The barrier may either be overt (outward or physical) or covert (inward, psychological) Defence mechanisms of frustration  Aggression: Aggression is thought to be a reaction to frustration. Interactional justice, individual differences (such as trait, anger, attribution style, etc) and previous exposure to aggressive cultures may account for aggression in the workplace. Implementing a violence prevention policy and providing training to supervisors and employees seems to reduce employee-on-employee violence  Withdrawal: The withdrawal reaction to frustration may be a major explanation for the "motivational" problem of employees. They may be apathetic or have "retired from the job" because they are frustrated, not because they have no motivation. Many employees' motives have been blocked by dead-end jobs, high degrees of job specialisation, or supervisors who put up barriers. Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| IOP4862 Compiled by Sharon Winter 071 622 9587  Fixation: The fixation reaction to frustration may be used to explain irrational bureaucratic behaviour (the rules become the ends in themselves and the frustrated employee pathetically adapts to the barriers)  Compromise: Compromise can explain midcareer changes (frustrated employees go around the barriers ; frustrated employees cannot achieve motivated goals on the job so they seek fulfilment outside the job). In the case of compromise, the employee's motivation is forced outside the organisation In some cases, frustration may result in a positive impact on individual performance and organisational goals. The person may try harder to overcome the barrier or may compensate, or the new direction or goal sought may be more compatible with the organisation's goals HOW DO GROUPS AND TEAMS BEHAVE? WHAT ARE SOME OF THE ANTECEDENT CONDITIONS OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT?  Intergroup behaviour occurs whenever individuals belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group or its members in terms of their reference group identification Antecedent conditions identified for explaining intergroup conflict Competition for resources  Most organisations have limited resources  Groups within the organisation therefore compete for budget funds, supplies, personnel and support services Task independence  If two groups in the organisation depend on one another in a mutual way, there tends to be more conflict than if groups are independent of one another  The more diverse the objectives/priorities/personnel of the interdependent group, the more conflict there tends to be Jurisdictional ambiguity  This may involve "turf" problems or overlapping responsibilities  Conflict may occur when one group attempts to assume more control or take credit for desirable activities, or give up part of its responsibilities for undesirable activities Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| IOP4862 Compiled by Sharon Winter 071 622 9587 Status struggles  This conflict occurs when one group attempts to improve its status and another group views this as a threat to its place in the status hierarchy  One group may also feel it is being inequitably treated in comparison with another group of equal status in terms of rewards, job assignments, working conditions and privileges DISCUSS THE SURVIVOR SYNDROME AND WAYS ORGANISATIONS CAN HELP TO COMBAT IT. PROVIDE SOME EXAMPLES OF THE SURVIVOR SYNDROME IN SA ORGANISATIONS AND HOW TO DEAL OR NOT TO DEAL WITH IT  Downsizing has become an everyday occurrence due to global recession and political instability  Employees who remain after downsizing are likely to be affected by the guilt and burden of having survived the downsizing or retrenchments  Downsizing leaves the survivors anxious, frustrated, resistant and with a "wait and see" attitude. This is known as "survivor syndrome"  Knowledge of survivor quality aspects will enable HR practitioners to design methods to involve survivors in the decision-making process, improve worker conditions and initiate survivor re-training focused on the new job demands  This will result in improved survivor morale, commitment and motivation Recommendations to combat survivor syndrome include  Managers should have knowledge of the context in which downsizing is taking place. Such knowledge makes them effective in deciding criteria, processes and procedures to be adopted when downsizing  There should be differential treatment of employees during and after downsizing. This may lead to the strengthening of commitment towards the new organisational order  Be proactive. For example, develop a comprehensive communication campaign and train managers in how to help survivors  Acknowledge survivor's emotion. For example, use workshops that allow employees to vent their frustration and develop skills that would allow them to think of change as an opportunity for growth  Communicate after downsizing.  Clarify new roles. It is important to explain how each employee's job has changed, and relate how each individual contributes to the new big picture in the downsized organisation Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| IOP4862 Compiled by Sharon Winter 071 622 9587 SUMMARISE AND EVALUATE VARIOUS STRATEGIES FOR PREVENTING AND EFFECTIVELY MANAGING STRESS Organisational coping strategies  Organisational coping strategies are designed by management to eliminate or control organisation stressors to prevent or reduce job stress for employees  Attention may be given to making performance reviews and pay plans as equitable and as fair as possible  Steps may be taken to move away from high degrees of formalisation and specialisation  Physical conditions (such as safety hazards, lighting, noise) and processes (such as communication, information sharing and conflicting goals) can be improved  Work-family initiatives can be implemented. For example restructuring jobs and job duties, offering flexible work schedules, paid family and medical leave, and limiting business travel  Employee assistance programs (EAPs) can also be implemented. These may include counselling services, family workshops, stress management workshops and relaxation seminars Individual coping strategies  Exercise: exercise may help Jim to relax, enhance his self-esteem, and get his mind off of work for awhile  Relaxation: Jim may use techniques such biofeedback of meditation. Meditation involves muscle and mental relaxation and has been found to have a desirable physical and mental impact on people. He may also read or watch television as a form of relaxation  Behavioural self-control: Jim can try to manage his own behaviour as well as avoid people or a situation that he knows puts him under stress.  Cognitive therapy: Cognitive behavioural therapy and building self-efficacy can be used to reduce stress. People with high self-efficacy are not fazed by heavy workloads. The goal is therefore to gain or enhance one's sense of efficacy over situations through successful performance experiences, social persuasion and controlling physiological and emotional states  Networking: Jim will benefit from social support. He would therefore need to form close associations with co-workers who are good listeners and confidence builders. Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| JAN 2013 QUESTION 1 A (15) Motivation  Motivation is a psychological process that starts with a physiological or psychological need that activates a behaviour aimed at an incentive  Motivation consists of three elements: - Need: a physiological or psychological deficiency - Drive/motive: an action toward an incentive to alleviate a need - Incentive: anything that alleviates a need and restores a physiological/psychological balance Maslow (Hierarchy of needs)  Maslow arranged a person's motivational needs in a hierarchy  He believed that once a certain level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate  The next level need has to be activated to motivate the individual  Hierarchy of work motivation - Basic needs: pay - Security needs: seniority plans, unions, health insurance, pension - Social needs: formal and informal work groups or teams - Esteem needs: titles, status and recognition - Self-actualisation: personal growth, realisation of potential Hertzberg (Two-factor theory of motivation)  Hygiene factors: pay, benefits, work conditions and supervisory style  Motivators: recognition, achievement, responsibility, advancement and growth  According to Herzberg motivators are related to job content or the work itself  Hygiene factors are related to job context  Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction  Only motivators motivate employees on the job  According to Herzberg, an individual must have a challenging job that offers opportunities for advancement and recognition to be truly motivated Downloaded by Candice Vermeulen () lOMoARcPSD| Adler (ERG)  Adler extended the work of Maslow and Herzberg to include three groups of core needs - Existence: concerned with survival - Relatedness: stresses the importance of interpersonal and social relationships - Growth: concerned with intrinsic desire for personal development  Adler didn’t assume that these needs existed in a hierarchy. An individual can be focusing on all three categories at the same time QUESTION 1 B (10) Equity theory  Employees compare their job inputs (e.g. effort, experience, education) and outcomes (e.g. salaries, promotion, and recognition) relative to those of others  The equity theory argues that a major input into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of equity or inequity people perceive in their work situation  If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist  Inequity on the other hand, occurs when a person perceives the ratio of his/her outcomes to inputs as not the same as significant others which results in tension  Employees may compare themselves to friends, neighbours, co-workers, or colleagues in the organisation, or compare their present job with past jobs they have had  When an employee experiences inequity they may make one of the following choices: 1. Change their inputs: for example, exert less effort 2. Change their outcomes: for example, individuals can increase their pay by producing more items but of a lesser quality 3. Distort perceptions of self: e.g. "I used to think I worked at a moderate pace, but now I realise that I work a lot harder than everyone else 4. Distort perception of others: e.g. "Mike's job isn't as desirable as I previously thought it was" 5. Choose a different referent 6. Leave the field: e.g. quit the job.