IOP3703_ Study Pack.

IOP3703_ Study Pack. Career Psychology. The meaning of work encapsulates the significance that work has in an individuals’ life. There are four historical contexts that have been proposed to explain how individuals make their work meaningful. Name and discuss these historical contexts. According to Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:1), “The meaning of work embraces the significance that work has in people’s lives.” People’s lives are governed by the nature of work that they do, to some extent, as work is believed to have an impact on people’s biological survival and quality of life. Work surpasses life’s facets such as:  Community,  Religion, and  Leisure. The meaning of work has different interpretations and values to different people. Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:1), propound that “… work seen as a means of making a living, of being occupied, fulfilling a vocation, developing and utilizing skills, fulfilling needs, contributing to an all-embracing lifestyle or fulfilling a life purpose.” Individuals appreciate work in different values and fashions, thus, the opinions stated above. This essay seeks to detail a discussion on how the meanings of work have changed over time. The meanings of work have changed over time, from the pre-industrial era, industrial era and post-industrial era as well, the 21st Century. Table 1, below postulates a breakdown of the changes over time. Period Meaning attached to work Pre-industrial era - Work as drudgery - Work as instrumental to spiritual or religious ends - Work as intrinsically meaningful for its own sake Industrial era - Mechanistic, mass productions lead to decline in the will to work. - Meaning sought outside sphere of work. Post-industrial era - Information technology and globalization lead to IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge2 multicultural viewpoints about the meaning of work. 21st Century - Boundary-less, service driven, technologyintensive work environments. - Work meaning is a socially constructed product, that is, dynamic and fluid and that expresses itself through the lenses of job meaning, role meaning and self-meaning in a particular sociocultural context. Table 1: The evolution of meanings associated with work. (Schreuder and Coetzee (2011) a) Pre-industrial era Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:2) notes that “The Greeks and Romans of antiquity viewed work as a burden that contaminates the mind.” Their belief was that work was meaningless and just a burden for the people. On the same view, the Hebrews saw work as drudgery but equally as instrumental to spiritual or religious ends such as regaining spiritual dignity. However, the Protestant, in the 16th century, viewed work as a duty, hence as intrinsically meaningful for its own sake. Some Protestants advocated the acquisition of wealth through morality. b) Industrial era According Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:3) probe that “With industrialization the meaning of work became a problem area, in that meaning was not self-evident.” In essence, this era has a basis on the mass production of objects in factories. There was the introduction of the division of labor on an extensive footing. This resulted in work tasks being broken down into smaller manageable units. c) Post-industrial era The gist of this era was on information rather than on industry. Production was associated with producing ideas in offices in addition to manufacturing objects in factories. The development of new technologies in areas such as computerization and communications, and interaction of different cultures involved heterogeneity in beliefs and tasks in society. IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge3 Hamilton-Attwell, (1998:80), assert that post-industrialization regards employees as being more enlightened with five characteristics: 1) Self-Actualisation: -behaving in accordance with one’s values, focusing on personal intellectual and emotional development and growth. 2) Hedonism: -the right to enjoy life and the benefits of one’s work: the job is just a means to an end. 3) Entitlementalism: -Being entitled to certain things such as having the right to choose to a dress code, to see sensitive organizational information and participate in strategic decisions. 4) Antiproductivism: Increasingly questioning the cost of economic growth versus the depletion of natural resources, pollution and the negative impact of the rising expectations of consumers on one’s quality of life. 5) Anti-authoritarianism: Having the right to question anybody who gives commands, even legitimate power and complying with a measure of reserve and suspicion. d) 21st Century The meaning of work and its characteristics changed to a shift from national markets to global markets, from technological to information, service-based to economies signaled some quick changes which eventually reflected the performance of work. According to Chen (2001), cited in Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:4), “People engage in continuous IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge4 sense-making to discern what meaning their work hold for them and act upon their relational setting at work in a motivated fashion…” -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Question 1b (10 Marks) Can organizations expect loyalty from employees given the changing nature of employment relationships? Discuss and illustrate your answer by providing practical examples. Schreuder and Coetzee (2016:79-80) Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:47) allude that “Changes in the workplace are often characterized by a change in employment relationships.” Employees happen to take a shift in their behavioural trends and hence employers have to respond through the concept of flexibility. Employee loyalty continues and there are new employment relationships that develop. According to Lawler and Finegold, (2000) as cited in Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:47), the following types of employment relationships are emerging: (1) Long-Term Insiders: Core employees Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:47), dictate that “An organization is built around core employees. Their critical skills and expertise help to focus the activities of the organization and give it a competitive advantage.” This means that loyalty is the key factor and those employees who are regarded as core employees are bound to promote the stability of the organization. (2) Short-Term Insiders: Careerists and Jugglers Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:47), define a careerist as “… someone to whom making a career within a certain industry takes precedence over a career within a certain company.” The concept of loyalty is shown by those employees that we grade as being IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge5 careerists. However, jugglers would not be much a part of the organisation’s culture although they will show some behavioural conformity. (3) Long-Term Outsiders: Pooled workers Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:47), allude that “Employees may be called upon to work for a company for a long period in the capacity of a substitute for another employee.” The notion of being called upon to work for a company for a long period in the capacity of a substitute for another employee addresses the loyalty of the particular employee. Part-time doctors are engaged at hospitals to work on shifts and on-call while their have their practices. (4) Short-Term Ousiders: Temporaries and Independent Contractors. According to Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:48), short term outsiders are have a temporary work relationship with a company and are more like contractors. Responding to the company’s seasoned work and specific projects is a sign of loyalty to an organization, per se. Contingent contracts help the employees to exhibit their levels of loyalty because of their favourability. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Question 1c (5 Marks) Explain the concept protean career A Protean career - A career shaped and managed by the individual. It emphasizes a self-directed approach to the career and a career that is driven by one’s own values. - It consists of all the person’s varied experiences in education, training, work in several organizations and changes in occupational field and is characterized by a high degree of mobility, self-reliance and internal career thinking. - It is a process in which the person, not the organization, is managing. - The relationship is still win-win, but is more equal. IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge6 The protean career is a mindset about the career that is characterized by the following (Briscoe and Hall, 2006; Hall, 1996b)  Psychological processes  Self-direction  Choices are based on personal values  Freedom and autonomy  Being managed by the individual  A series of identity changes  Chronological age being unimportant  Continuous learning  Employability  Work challenges provided by the organization  a high level of self-awareness  Freedom and growth being valued  Personal responsibility  A high degree of mobility   Internal career thinking being emphasized  This means that the present contract is with the self, whereas in the past, the contract was with the organization (Hall, 1996b.) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Question 2a (15 Marks) What is the meaning of career success in a changing world of work? How does the concept career success relate to career motivation and career maturity. Schreuder and Coetzee (2016:99-107) According to Judge and Kammeyer-Muller (2007:60) cited in Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:68), Career success means “… the real or perceived achievements individuals have accumulated as a result of work experiences.” That expertise which an individual has gained over a period of time in a given career, amounts to career success. The way in which individuals may identify and define their career success has a bearing on their career decisions. Schreuder& Coetzee (2011:2) assert that the meanings of work are derived directly or indirectly from socio-cultural influences in the context of, family IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge7 socialization, school socialization, group affiliations, and work experience. This implies that the meaning of work is determined by the three capacities. London (1983:620) quoted in Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:69) alludes that “Career motivation is ‘a multi-dimensional construct internal to the individual, influenced by the situation and reflected in the individual’s decisions and behaviours’”. Career motivation has three key domains; career identity, career insight and career resilience. Career maturity is defined by Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:70) as “… a concept that is linked to resilience. Individuals who make career decisions that reflect decisiveness, involvement, independence, task orientation and willingness to compromise between needs and reality have usually achieved a high degree of career maturity.” This discussion seeks to elaborate the meaning of career success in a changing world of work and how the concept success relates to career motivation and career maturity. Career success has various interpretations to different individuals. It can refer to: (a) That promotion in the work place, (b) Becoming an expert in the particular field of work, (c) The development of many different skills and abilities, hence the use of these skills and abilities in helping others to grow, (d) The frequent maneuver from one challenge to the other, and also (e) The extent to which there is a match between the individuals’ career anchors and career values. (Schein 1993) cited in (ibid.p68) The individual’s career success eventually relates to career motivation in the sense that, intrinsically, the individual feels career and life satisfaction, self-accomplishment and self-worth, employability and promotion. Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:69) note that, “People’s career well-being is affected by their career experiences which lead to positive and/or negative evaluations (thoughts) and feelings about their jobs or careers.” This exhibits the true link between career success and career motivation. IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge8 On the other hand, the individual’s career success relates to career maturity by virtue of their resilience. These particular individuals come up with career decisions that reflect decisiveness, involvement, independence, task orientation and willingness to compromise between needs and reality, hence they usually achieve a high degree of career maturity. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Question 2b (10 Marks) Distinguish between the traditional and contemporary definitions of a career. Schreuder and Coetzee (2016:91-94) People’s interpretation and progression in their careers has greatly evolved. They are now in a position to manage their careers. Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:381) define career management as “The ongoing process whereby the employees obtain (1) self-knowledge and (2) knowledge of employment opportunities, (3) develops career goals, (4) develops a strategy, (5) implements and experiments and (6) obtains feedback on the effectiveness of the strategy and the relevance of the goals.” This is a process of life-enrichment in the career section of the individual. This essay seeks to distinguish between the traditional and contemporary definitions of a career. Modern careers have evolved to: a) Protean careers IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge9 Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:381) assert that “A career shaped and managed by the individual.” It emphasizes a self-directed approach to the career and a career that is driven by one’s own values. - It consists of all the person’s varied experiences in education, training, work in several organizations and changes in occupational field and is characterized by a high degree of mobility, self-reliance and internal career thinking. - It is a process in which the person, not the organization, is managing. - The relationship is still win-win, but is more equal. This means that the present contract is with the self, whereas in the past, the contract was with the organization (Hall, 1996b.) b) Boundaryless careers This is said to be a career that is characterized by flexibility, mobility and movement between different global-organizational contexts. Briscoe and Hall, (2006) note that, like the protean career concept, is the view of a boundary-less career. The traditional or organizational view of a career had the organization playing host to individual’s careers. Now the individual makes most of the decisions. According to Tams and Arthur (2006) cited in Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:38), “… the boundaryless career, involves a physical or psychological movement away from the current employer. In the boundary career, individuals have self-ownership of their careers.” People tend to manage their careers in a relatively autonomous fashion between jobs, companies and professions and, in the process, their employment value is increased (Inkson, 2008) c) Composite careers This implies saving in more than one working role or having more occupations and sources of income. It is stated that in the 21st century world of careers, individuals are likely to experience themselves as having more than one working role and holding more than one job – implying that they will have to manage their time between these different roles, companies, locations, clients, teams and schedules. Work in boundary-less, dejobbed organization is repackaged into projects and assignments and individuals are likely to be doing several at once. This composite work life forces individuals to manage IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge1 0 their own time and efforts in the way a self-employed person with several different clients does. (Bridges, 1995) d) Entrepreneurial career This nature of career depicts the choice of employment that is self-managed. Selfemployment requires a great willingness to take action, experiment and constantly innovate. Decisive and innovative actions are required to respond to changing market conditions on a continuous basis. Anybody who is self-employed is an entrepreneur. Self-employment is often referred to as the entrepreneurial career. Schreuder and Coetzee (2011) Entrepreneurial qualities and skills are believed to be learned and improved along the way. e) Career progress and success redefined Career progress refers to individuals’ experiences of career growth which may include moving upward, increasing competence and expertise and gaining broader experience across multi-directional career movements. Career success refers to the objective and subjective (psychological) sense of achievement and well-being individuals experience regarding their careers. Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:42) f) Individualism is valued more than organizational loyalty Individuals become more proactive career agents who take responsibility for their career development. Heir loyalty is now redefined in terms of their employability and professionalism. g) New knowledge and skills required for more technical and complex work The knowledge economy and a more complex and differentiated organization result in the employment of more specialists and knowledge workers. h) Lifelong learning IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge1 1 Continuous learning is the process by which one acquires knowledge, skills and abilities throughout one’s career in reaction to and in anticipation of, changing performance criteria. (London and Mone, 1999:199). This is believed to be the process by which one acquires knowledge, skills and abilities throughout one’s life and career in reaction to and in anticipation of changing performance criteria. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Question 2b (15 Marks) Distinguish between the protean career, boundary less career, composite career, and the entrepreneurial career. People’s interpretation and progression in their careers has greatly evolved. They are now in a position to manage their careers. Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:381) define career management as “The ongoing process whereby the employees obtain (1) self-knowledge and (2) knowledge of employment opportunities, (3) develops career goals, (4) develops a strategy, (5) implements and experiments and (6) obtains feedback on the effectiveness of the strategy and the relevance of the goals.” This is a process of life-enrichment in the career section of the individual. This essay seeks to distinguish between the traditional and contemporary definitions of a career. Modern careers have evolved to: i) Protean careers IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge1 2 Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:381) assert that “A career shaped and managed by the individual.” It emphasizes a self-directed approach to the career and a career that is driven by one’s own values. - It consists of all the person’s varied experiences in education, training, work in several organizations and changes in occupational field and is characterized by a high degree of mobility, self-reliance and internal career thinking. - It is a process in which the person, not the organization, is managing. - The relationship is still win-win, but is more equal. This means that the present contract is with the self, whereas in the past, the contract was with the organization (Hall, 1996b.) j) Boundaryless careers This is said to be a career that is characterized by flexibility, mobility and movement between different global-organizational contexts. Briscoe and Hall, (2006) note that, like the protean career concept, is the view of a boundary-less career. The traditional or organizational view of a career had the organization playing host to individual’s careers. Now the individual makes most of the decisions. According to Tams and Arthur (2006) cited in Schreuder and Coetzee (2011:38), “… the boundaryless career, involves a physical or psychological movement away from the current employer. In the boundary career, individuals have self-ownership of their careers.” People tend to manage their careers in a relatively autonomous fashion between jobs, companies and professions and, in the process, their employment value is increased (Inkson, 2008) k) Composite careers This implies saving in more than one working role or having more occupations and sources of income. It is stated that in the 21st century world of careers, individuals are likely to experience themselves as having more than one working role and holding more than one job – implying that they will have to manage their time between these different roles, companies, locations, clients, teams and schedules. Work in boundary-less, dejobbed organization is repackaged into projects and assignments and individuals are likely to be doing several at once. This composite work life forces individuals to manage IOP 3703 – Career Psychology Study Pack P a ge1 3 their own time and efforts in the way a self-employed person with several different clients does. (Bridges, 1995) l) Entrepreneurial career This nature of career depicts the choice of employment that is self-managed. Selfemployment requires a great willingness to take action, experiment and constantly innovate. Decisive and innovative actions are required to respond to changing market conditions on a continuous basis. Anybody who is self-employed is an entrepreneur. Self-employment is often referred to as the entrepreneurial career. Schreuder and Coetzee (2011) Entrepreneurial qualities and skills are believed to be learned and improved along the way. ---------------------------------------