notes for all the topics and skills of computer science

C++
C++
Notes for Professionals




Notes for Professionals




600+ pages
of professional hints and tricks


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,Contents
About ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Getting started with C++ .................................................................................................................... 2
Section 1.1: Hello World ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Section 1.2: Comments .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Section 1.3: The standard C++ compilation process .................................................................................................. 5
Section 1.4: Function ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Section 1.5: Visibility of function prototypes and declarations ................................................................................. 8
Section 1.6: Preprocessor .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Literals ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Section 2.1: this ............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Section 2.2: Integer literal ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Section 2.3: true ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Section 2.4: false .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Section 2.5: nullptr ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 3: operator precedence ........................................................................................................................ 14
Section 3.1: Logical && and || operators: short-circuit .............................................................................................. 14
Section 3.2: Unary Operators ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Section 3.3: Arithmetic operators .............................................................................................................................. 15
Section 3.4: Logical AND and OR operators ............................................................................................................ 16
Chapter 4: Floating Point Arithmetic ............................................................................................................... 17
Section 4.1: Floating Point Numbers are Weird ........................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 5: Bit Operators ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Section 5.1: | - bitwise OR ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Section 5.2: ^ - bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) .............................................................................................................. 18
Section 5.3: & - bitwise AND ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Section 5.4: << - left shift ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Section 5.5: >> - right shift .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 6: Bit Manipulation ................................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.1: Remove rightmost set bit ....................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.2: Set all bits ................................................................................................................................................ 23
Section 6.3: Toggling a bit .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.4: Checking a bit ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.5: Counting bits set ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Section 6.6: Check if an integer is a power of 2 ....................................................................................................... 25
Section 6.7: Setting a bit ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Section 6.8: Clearing a bit ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Section 6.9: Changing the nth bit to x ....................................................................................................................... 25
Section 6.10: Bit Manipulation Application: Small to Capital Letter ........................................................................ 26
Chapter 7: Bit fields ................................................................................................................................................... 27
Section 7.1: Declaration and Usage ........................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 8: Arrays ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
Section 8.1: Array initialization .................................................................................................................................... 28
Section 8.2: A fixed size raw array matrix (that is, a 2D raw array) ...................................................................... 29
Section 8.3: Dynamically sized raw array ................................................................................................................. 29
Section 8.4: Array size: type safe at compile time ................................................................................................... 30
Section 8.5: Expanding dynamic size array by using std::vector ........................................................................... 31

, Section 8.6: A dynamic size matrix using std::vector for storage .......................................................................... 32
Chapter 9: Iterators ................................................................................................................................................... 35
Section 9.1: Overview ................................................................................................................................................... 35
Section 9.2: Vector Iterator ........................................................................................................................................ 38
Section 9.3: Map Iterator ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Section 9.4: Reverse Iterators .................................................................................................................................... 39
Section 9.5: Stream Iterators ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Section 9.6: C Iterators (Pointers) .............................................................................................................................. 40
Section 9.7: Write your own generator-backed iterator ......................................................................................... 41
Chapter 10: Basic input/output in c++ ............................................................................................................. 43
Section 10.1: user input and standard output ........................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 11: Loops ........................................................................................................................................................ 44
Section 11.1: Range-Based For .................................................................................................................................... 44
Section 11.2: For loop ................................................................................................................................................... 46
Section 11.3: While loop ............................................................................................................................................... 48
Section 11.4: Do-while loop .......................................................................................................................................... 49
Section 11.5: Loop Control statements : Break and Continue .................................................................................. 50
Section 11.6: Declaration of variables in conditions ................................................................................................. 51
Section 11.7: Range-for over a sub-range ................................................................................................................. 52
Chapter 12: File I/O .................................................................................................................................................... 54
Section 12.1: Writing to a file ....................................................................................................................................... 54
Section 12.2: Opening a file ........................................................................................................................................ 54
Section 12.3: Reading from a file ............................................................................................................................... 55
Section 12.4: Opening modes ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Section 12.5: Reading an ASCII file into a std::string ................................................................................................ 58
Section 12.6: Writing files with non-standard locale settings .................................................................................. 59
Section 12.7: Checking end of file inside a loop condition, bad practice? ............................................................. 60
Section 12.8: Flushing a stream .................................................................................................................................. 61
Section 12.9: Reading a file into a container ............................................................................................................. 61
Section 12.10: Copying a file ....................................................................................................................................... 62
Section 12.11: Closing a file .......................................................................................................................................... 62
Section 12.12: Reading a `struct` from a formatted text file .................................................................................... 63
Chapter 13: C++ Streams ......................................................................................................................................... 65
Section 13.1: String streams ........................................................................................................................................ 65
Section 13.2: Printing collections with iostream ........................................................................................................ 66
Chapter 14: Stream manipulators ..................................................................................................................... 68
Section 14.1: Stream manipulators ............................................................................................................................. 68
Section 14.2: Output stream manipulators ............................................................................................................... 73
Section 14.3: Input stream manipulators ................................................................................................................... 75
Chapter 15: Flow Control ......................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.1: case ......................................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.2: switch ...................................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.3: catch ....................................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.4: throw ....................................................................................................................................................... 78
Section 15.5: default .................................................................................................................................................... 79
Section 15.6: try ............................................................................................................................................................ 79
Section 15.7: if ............................................................................................................................................................... 79
Section 15.8: else .......................................................................................................................................................... 80
Section 15.9: Conditional Structures: if, if..else ........................................................................................................... 80

, Section 15.10: goto ....................................................................................................................................................... 81
Section 15.11: Jump statements : break, continue, goto, exit ................................................................................... 81
Section 15.12: return ..................................................................................................................................................... 84
Chapter 16: Metaprogramming ........................................................................................................................... 86
Section 16.1: Calculating Factorials ............................................................................................................................ 86
Section 16.2: Iterating over a parameter pack ......................................................................................................... 88
Section 16.3: Iterating with std::integer_sequence ................................................................................................... 89
Section 16.4: Tag Dispatching .................................................................................................................................... 90
Section 16.5: Detect Whether Expression is Valid ..................................................................................................... 90
Section 16.6: If-then-else ............................................................................................................................................. 92
Section 16.7: Manual distinction of types when given any type T .......................................................................... 92
Section 16.8: Calculating power with C++11 (and higher) ......................................................................................... 93
Section 16.9: Generic Min/Max with variable argument count ............................................................................... 94
Chapter 17: const keyword .................................................................................................................................... 95
Section 17.1: Avoiding duplication of code in const and non-const getter methods ............................................ 95
Section 17.2: Const member functions ...................................................................................................................... 96
Section 17.3: Const local variables ............................................................................................................................. 97
Section 17.4: Const pointers ........................................................................................................................................ 97
Chapter 18: mutable keyword .............................................................................................................................. 99
Section 18.1: mutable lambdas ................................................................................................................................... 99
Section 18.2: non-static class member modifier ...................................................................................................... 99
Chapter 19: Friend keyword ................................................................................................................................ 101
Section 19.1: Friend function ..................................................................................................................................... 101
Section 19.2: Friend method ..................................................................................................................................... 102
Section 19.3: Friend class .......................................................................................................................................... 102
Chapter 20: Type Keywords ............................................................................................................................... 104
Section 20.1: class ...................................................................................................................................................... 104
Section 20.2: enum .................................................................................................................................................... 105
Section 20.3: struct .................................................................................................................................................... 106
Section 20.4: union .................................................................................................................................................... 106
Chapter 21: Basic Type Keywords .................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.1: char ....................................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.2: char16_t ................................................................................................................................................ 108
Section 21.3: char32_t ............................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.4: int .......................................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.5: void ....................................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.6: wchar_t ................................................................................................................................................ 109
Section 21.7: float ....................................................................................................................................................... 109
Section 21.8: double ................................................................................................................................................... 109
Section 21.9: long ....................................................................................................................................................... 109
Section 21.10: short .................................................................................................................................................... 110
Section 21.11: bool ...................................................................................................................................................... 110
Chapter 22: Variable Declaration Keywords .............................................................................................. 111
Section 22.1: decltype ............................................................................................................................................... 111
Section 22.2: const .................................................................................................................................................... 111
Section 22.3: volatile ................................................................................................................................................. 112
Section 22.4: signed .................................................................................................................................................. 112
Section 22.5: unsigned .............................................................................................................................................. 112
Chapter 23: Keywords ............................................................................................................................................ 114