1
Introductie tot de Cognitieve
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Chapter 1 Behaviour and Psychology
Introduction
Phrenology: a now-discredited 18th-century theory which asserted that one could asses ability by
examining the shape of the skull.
Psychology: the scientific study of behaviour and experience.
Psychologists explore the actions and interactions of living creatures. 4 challenges unique to this
discipline.
- Complexity: a characteristic of systems composed of large numbers of interacting units (for
example neurons), resulting in new patterns or phenomena not found in individual units.
o Vast range of possibilities
o Large variety of data (observations)
- Self-awareness: the capacity for individuals or other living organisms to consciously observe
their own behaviour.
o Bias: misinterpret their own behaviour to fit their theoretical idea.
- Reactivity: the tendency for people to alter their behaviour when they are being observed.
- Causality: the study of how actions or events produce (cause) a particular outcome.
o Many different factors can influence behaviour.
▪ Internal
▪ Immediate situation
▪ Past experiences
Why different approaches?
Traditional model of science: scientist formulate theories based on the information they have
gathered from research.
Thomas Kuhn: development and evaluation of a theory depend on available data, social and personal
factors, on someone’s framework/paradigm.
Naive realism: we see things as they are.
Perception: the process of selection, organization and interpretation of information about the world
conveyed by the senses.
Selective attention: the perceptual process of selectively focusing on particular stimulus elements.
Perception is determined by the external stimuli that we encounter as filtered by selective attention.
Ambiguous figure: a picture or other visual stimulus which can be perceived in more than one way.
Gestalt theory: a theory of behaviour pioneered in the early part of the 20th century by Kohler and
Wertheimer, which emphasized the active an creative nature of perception and learning.
- Similarity: grouping together elements that look similar.
- Proximity: grouping together elements that are close together.
- Closure: fill in incomplete patterns to produce a coherent whole.
Schema: mental framework which organizes knowledge, beliefs and expectations, and is used to
guide behaviour.
Confirmation bias: a form of cognitive error based on the tendency to seek out information which
supports one’s beliefs, and to ignore contradictory information.
Wilhelm Wundt
- Structuralism: an approach to psychology what attempt to analyse the contents of the mind,
using the introspectionist methods.
, 3
- Study behaviour by examining elementary sensory processes
- Founder of modern psychology
William James
- Functionalism: approach to the study of behaviour which emphasizes the analysis of the
processes by which the mind works.
- Textbook on psychology
- Analysing how the mind functioned rather than trying to observe its basic parts.
- No experiments
Methods of studying behaviour
The scientific method of psychology is empirical: based on making observations, as in an empirical
theory.
- Theory: a structured set of principles intended to explain a set of phenomena .
- Induction: a process of reasoning based on forming general principles from specific
observations.
- Deduction: the process of drawing specific conclusions from a set of general principles.
- Hypothesis: a statement describing a proposed relationship between variables.
Introspectionism: a method of gathering data in which the individual attempts to analyse the
content of their conscious mind.
- Structuralist
- Failed to provide clear answers
o Limitations inherent in process of perception
o Use of private experiences as data
Public techniques: any aspect of behaviour which can be observed consistently
- Operational definition: a term whose meaning is defined by the process or observable
events used to measure it.
Measuring techniques
- Self-report: a method of gathering data which involves asking an individual to describe their
behaviour or mental stat in some way
o Interview, survey
o Think-aloud protocols: a transcript of comments made when an individual is asked
to describe their thoughts and behaviour while working on a task.
Experience sampling methods (ESM): methods of studying thoughts and feelings in
real time using communication technology (bliepers).
o Very direct
- Direct observation: any observational technique which depends on direct measurement of
behaviour by the researcher.
o Experiments
o Easily verified, not dependent on what the individual says, more objective
Research setting: the context in which research is conducted, either a laboratory setting or a field
setting.
Research method: a procedure for examining a problem and gathering observations; experimental or
non-experimental
- Experimental
o Understanding the causes of behaviour,
, 4
- Non-experimental: research methods which do not involve direct control of any factor;
descriptive/correlational designs.
o Correlational, finding patterns in behaviour.
o Interviews
o Surveys
o Case study: a detailed description of a single individual, typically used to provide
information on the person’s history and to aid in interpreting the person’s behaviour.
o Naturalistic observation: a research method which is based on observing behaviour
in a natural setting.
o Participant observation: a non-experimental research method in which the
researcher becomes part of a group he or she wishes to observe.
o Unobstructive measure: an indirect measure of behaviour intended to avoid the
reactivity which can occur with direct observation.
▪ Careful in generalizing
- Quasi-experiment: a research design in which participant are assigned to groups based on
variables which cannot be manipulated by the researchers (age).
- Mixed-method research: psychological research which utilizes several different strategies
and methods.
Population: the group whose characteristics one wishes to determine.
Sample: a sub-group drawn from a population
Variable: any measured characteristic which shows variation across cases or conditions
Correlation coefficient: measuring the degree of relationship between two variables.
Illusory correlation: a cognitive error in which an individual perceives a relationship between
variables where non actually exists.
Independent variable: variable which is systematically varied by the researcher, in order to see what
effect it has on behaviour (manipulation).
Dependent variable: the behaviour measured in on order to evaluate the effect of the independent
variable.
One issue which is common to all psychological research is the importance of ethics.
- Causing harm
- Deception vs informed consent
Introductie tot de Cognitieve
wetenschappen
Hoofdstuk 1 t/m 10
, 2
Chapter 1 Behaviour and Psychology
Introduction
Phrenology: a now-discredited 18th-century theory which asserted that one could asses ability by
examining the shape of the skull.
Psychology: the scientific study of behaviour and experience.
Psychologists explore the actions and interactions of living creatures. 4 challenges unique to this
discipline.
- Complexity: a characteristic of systems composed of large numbers of interacting units (for
example neurons), resulting in new patterns or phenomena not found in individual units.
o Vast range of possibilities
o Large variety of data (observations)
- Self-awareness: the capacity for individuals or other living organisms to consciously observe
their own behaviour.
o Bias: misinterpret their own behaviour to fit their theoretical idea.
- Reactivity: the tendency for people to alter their behaviour when they are being observed.
- Causality: the study of how actions or events produce (cause) a particular outcome.
o Many different factors can influence behaviour.
▪ Internal
▪ Immediate situation
▪ Past experiences
Why different approaches?
Traditional model of science: scientist formulate theories based on the information they have
gathered from research.
Thomas Kuhn: development and evaluation of a theory depend on available data, social and personal
factors, on someone’s framework/paradigm.
Naive realism: we see things as they are.
Perception: the process of selection, organization and interpretation of information about the world
conveyed by the senses.
Selective attention: the perceptual process of selectively focusing on particular stimulus elements.
Perception is determined by the external stimuli that we encounter as filtered by selective attention.
Ambiguous figure: a picture or other visual stimulus which can be perceived in more than one way.
Gestalt theory: a theory of behaviour pioneered in the early part of the 20th century by Kohler and
Wertheimer, which emphasized the active an creative nature of perception and learning.
- Similarity: grouping together elements that look similar.
- Proximity: grouping together elements that are close together.
- Closure: fill in incomplete patterns to produce a coherent whole.
Schema: mental framework which organizes knowledge, beliefs and expectations, and is used to
guide behaviour.
Confirmation bias: a form of cognitive error based on the tendency to seek out information which
supports one’s beliefs, and to ignore contradictory information.
Wilhelm Wundt
- Structuralism: an approach to psychology what attempt to analyse the contents of the mind,
using the introspectionist methods.
, 3
- Study behaviour by examining elementary sensory processes
- Founder of modern psychology
William James
- Functionalism: approach to the study of behaviour which emphasizes the analysis of the
processes by which the mind works.
- Textbook on psychology
- Analysing how the mind functioned rather than trying to observe its basic parts.
- No experiments
Methods of studying behaviour
The scientific method of psychology is empirical: based on making observations, as in an empirical
theory.
- Theory: a structured set of principles intended to explain a set of phenomena .
- Induction: a process of reasoning based on forming general principles from specific
observations.
- Deduction: the process of drawing specific conclusions from a set of general principles.
- Hypothesis: a statement describing a proposed relationship between variables.
Introspectionism: a method of gathering data in which the individual attempts to analyse the
content of their conscious mind.
- Structuralist
- Failed to provide clear answers
o Limitations inherent in process of perception
o Use of private experiences as data
Public techniques: any aspect of behaviour which can be observed consistently
- Operational definition: a term whose meaning is defined by the process or observable
events used to measure it.
Measuring techniques
- Self-report: a method of gathering data which involves asking an individual to describe their
behaviour or mental stat in some way
o Interview, survey
o Think-aloud protocols: a transcript of comments made when an individual is asked
to describe their thoughts and behaviour while working on a task.
Experience sampling methods (ESM): methods of studying thoughts and feelings in
real time using communication technology (bliepers).
o Very direct
- Direct observation: any observational technique which depends on direct measurement of
behaviour by the researcher.
o Experiments
o Easily verified, not dependent on what the individual says, more objective
Research setting: the context in which research is conducted, either a laboratory setting or a field
setting.
Research method: a procedure for examining a problem and gathering observations; experimental or
non-experimental
- Experimental
o Understanding the causes of behaviour,
, 4
- Non-experimental: research methods which do not involve direct control of any factor;
descriptive/correlational designs.
o Correlational, finding patterns in behaviour.
o Interviews
o Surveys
o Case study: a detailed description of a single individual, typically used to provide
information on the person’s history and to aid in interpreting the person’s behaviour.
o Naturalistic observation: a research method which is based on observing behaviour
in a natural setting.
o Participant observation: a non-experimental research method in which the
researcher becomes part of a group he or she wishes to observe.
o Unobstructive measure: an indirect measure of behaviour intended to avoid the
reactivity which can occur with direct observation.
▪ Careful in generalizing
- Quasi-experiment: a research design in which participant are assigned to groups based on
variables which cannot be manipulated by the researchers (age).
- Mixed-method research: psychological research which utilizes several different strategies
and methods.
Population: the group whose characteristics one wishes to determine.
Sample: a sub-group drawn from a population
Variable: any measured characteristic which shows variation across cases or conditions
Correlation coefficient: measuring the degree of relationship between two variables.
Illusory correlation: a cognitive error in which an individual perceives a relationship between
variables where non actually exists.
Independent variable: variable which is systematically varied by the researcher, in order to see what
effect it has on behaviour (manipulation).
Dependent variable: the behaviour measured in on order to evaluate the effect of the independent
variable.
One issue which is common to all psychological research is the importance of ethics.
- Causing harm
- Deception vs informed consent
