Supplementary Exam Notes
Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
1. Method of tenacity: holding onto ideas and beliefs because they have been accepted as
facts for a long time or because of superstition
- This method is based on habit or superstition
2. Method of intuition: information is accepted as true because it “feels right”.
- This method is based on hunch or gut-feeling
3. Method of authority finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject.
- This method is based on an expert
4. Method of rationalism: seeking answers by logical reasoning. In logical reasoning, premise
statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true. An argument is a
set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion.
- This method is based on reasoning and logical conclusion.
5. Method of empiricism: answers questions by direct observation or personal experience.
- this method is based on direct sensory observation
The scientific Method
The scientific method is an approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific
questions and then systematically finding answers.
- Inductive reasoning: uses a few limited observations to generate a general hypothesis
- Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different
individuals.
, - Hypothesis: a statement that describes a relationship between or among variables
- Deductive reasoning: uses a general hypothesis or premise to generate a prediction
about specific observations.
Difference between inductive and deductive reasoning: Examples
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
I ate 3 green apples, and all were sour. All All green apples are sour so if I eat one, it will
green apples are sour be sour.
Principles of scientific method
Falsifiability: empirical testing should be done to verify researcher’s ideas as true or false
Objectivity: reliance on evidence that at least 2 researchers can verify
Replicability: allows researchers to test verified knowledge done by previous researchers using
operational definitions
Self-correction: researchers discard falsified ideas and verify knowledge claims through
replication
Systematic: approach research in a methodological way.
Dominant research Paradigms
,Positivism: positivists believe that there is a single objective reality which can be measured and
known.
- They advocate for quantitative research methods to isolate the reality, make predictions
and generalisations about what can be expected elsewhere.
- Research located in the positivist paradigm starts with the derivation of falsifiable
hypotheses from theory, followed by hypothesis testing using precise observations and
measurements.
Interpretivists: there is no single reality and therefore reality needs to be understood through
the lens of the people they study.
- They advocate for qualitative methods to capture those multiple subjective realities.
- Research located in this paradigm place emphasis on understanding the individual and
how they interpret the world around them instead of deriving universal laws.
Pragmatism: recognise that there are many ways of interpreting the world and undertaking
research and that no single point of view can ever capture the entire picture.
- Pragmatics combine both positivist and interpretivist positions within the scope of a single
research to address the research question.
- Research question drives the researcher’s methods.
Inductive and deductive research process
Inductive approach: begins with data collection. Once a good amount of data is collected, the
researcher then takes a step back to get an overview of the data to check for patterns and
explanations for those patterns. They move from the data to the theory.
, Deductive approach: starts with an existing theory, develop a hypothesis from that theory and
collect and analyse observations to test those hypotheses. They move from theory to data.
Identifying a topic area
Applied research: intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems
Basic research: intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the
sake of new knowledge.
Searching the existing research literature in a topic area
Primary source: first-hand report of observations or research results written by the individual
who conducted the research and made the observations
Secondary source: a summary of another person’s work.
Using a research idea to form a hypothesis and create a research study
Testable hypothesis: one for which all the variables, events and individuals can be defined and
observed
Refutable hypothesis: one that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, it is possible for the
outcome to be different from the prediction.
Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
1. Method of tenacity: holding onto ideas and beliefs because they have been accepted as
facts for a long time or because of superstition
- This method is based on habit or superstition
2. Method of intuition: information is accepted as true because it “feels right”.
- This method is based on hunch or gut-feeling
3. Method of authority finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject.
- This method is based on an expert
4. Method of rationalism: seeking answers by logical reasoning. In logical reasoning, premise
statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true. An argument is a
set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion.
- This method is based on reasoning and logical conclusion.
5. Method of empiricism: answers questions by direct observation or personal experience.
- this method is based on direct sensory observation
The scientific Method
The scientific method is an approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific
questions and then systematically finding answers.
- Inductive reasoning: uses a few limited observations to generate a general hypothesis
- Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different
individuals.
, - Hypothesis: a statement that describes a relationship between or among variables
- Deductive reasoning: uses a general hypothesis or premise to generate a prediction
about specific observations.
Difference between inductive and deductive reasoning: Examples
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
I ate 3 green apples, and all were sour. All All green apples are sour so if I eat one, it will
green apples are sour be sour.
Principles of scientific method
Falsifiability: empirical testing should be done to verify researcher’s ideas as true or false
Objectivity: reliance on evidence that at least 2 researchers can verify
Replicability: allows researchers to test verified knowledge done by previous researchers using
operational definitions
Self-correction: researchers discard falsified ideas and verify knowledge claims through
replication
Systematic: approach research in a methodological way.
Dominant research Paradigms
,Positivism: positivists believe that there is a single objective reality which can be measured and
known.
- They advocate for quantitative research methods to isolate the reality, make predictions
and generalisations about what can be expected elsewhere.
- Research located in the positivist paradigm starts with the derivation of falsifiable
hypotheses from theory, followed by hypothesis testing using precise observations and
measurements.
Interpretivists: there is no single reality and therefore reality needs to be understood through
the lens of the people they study.
- They advocate for qualitative methods to capture those multiple subjective realities.
- Research located in this paradigm place emphasis on understanding the individual and
how they interpret the world around them instead of deriving universal laws.
Pragmatism: recognise that there are many ways of interpreting the world and undertaking
research and that no single point of view can ever capture the entire picture.
- Pragmatics combine both positivist and interpretivist positions within the scope of a single
research to address the research question.
- Research question drives the researcher’s methods.
Inductive and deductive research process
Inductive approach: begins with data collection. Once a good amount of data is collected, the
researcher then takes a step back to get an overview of the data to check for patterns and
explanations for those patterns. They move from the data to the theory.
, Deductive approach: starts with an existing theory, develop a hypothesis from that theory and
collect and analyse observations to test those hypotheses. They move from theory to data.
Identifying a topic area
Applied research: intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems
Basic research: intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the
sake of new knowledge.
Searching the existing research literature in a topic area
Primary source: first-hand report of observations or research results written by the individual
who conducted the research and made the observations
Secondary source: a summary of another person’s work.
Using a research idea to form a hypothesis and create a research study
Testable hypothesis: one for which all the variables, events and individuals can be defined and
observed
Refutable hypothesis: one that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, it is possible for the
outcome to be different from the prediction.
