Inhoudsopgave
1. Behaviour and psychologie............................................................................................................. 4
1.1 introduction.................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Origin ............................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 5
2. The biological approach ................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 introduction phantom limb = feeling something when you miss that arm ............................ 7
2.2 interactions of mind and body in behaviour ........................................................................... 7
2.2.1 effects of body on mind .................................................................................................. 7
2.2.2 The effects of mind on body ........................................................................................... 9
2.3 hereditary basis of behaviour ............................................................................................... 10
3. The behaviourist approach ........................................................................................................... 12
3.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 classical conditioning(learning) ............................................................................................ 13
3.2.1 classical conditioning .................................................................................................... 13
3.2.2 classical conditioning phenomena ................................................................................ 13
3.2.3 application of classical conditioning ............................................................................. 14
3.3 operant conditioning ............................................................................................................ 15
3.3.1 operant conditioning .................................................................................................... 15
3.3.2 operant conditioning phenomena ................................................................................ 17
3.4 application and implication of conditioning ......................................................................... 18
3.4.1 negative reinforcer and the aversive control of operant behaviour ............................. 18
3.4.2 interrelationships of classical and operant conditioning .............................................. 18
4.. Cognitive approach.......................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.1 autonomic conditioning and biofeedback .................................................................... 19
4.1.2 Biological constraints on learning ................................................................................. 20
4.2 learning and memory ........................................................................................................... 20
4.2.1 information gathering and memory ............................................................................. 20
4.2.2 model of memory & encoding and storing ................................................................... 21
4.2.3 Forgetting ..................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.4 Memory as reconstruction ........................................................................................... 23
4.2.5 Improving memories..................................................................................................... 23
4.3 problem solving .................................................................................................................... 23
1
, 4.4 language ............................................................................................................................... 24
4.5 other area’s .......................................................................................................................... 25
5. the psychodynamic approach........................................................................................................... 27
5.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 27
5.2 Freud & psychoanalyses ....................................................................................................... 27
5.2.1 Freuds assumptions about behaviour........................................................................... 27
5.2.2 exploring the working mind .......................................................................................... 27
5.2.3 model of personality ..................................................................................................... 28
5.2.4 psychosexual stages of development ........................................................................... 28
5.2.5 fixation and regression during development ................................................................ 29
5.2.6 anxiety and defence ..................................................................................................... 29
5.2.7 observing the unconscious on behaviour ..................................................................... 30
5.3 Neo-Freudian and Non-Freudian theories ............................................................................ 31
5.3.1 Jung .............................................................................................................................. 31
5.3.2 Adler ............................................................................................................................. 31
5.3.3 Bowlby .......................................................................................................................... 32
5.3.4 Horney ......................................................................................................................... 32
5.3.5 Erikson .......................................................................................................................... 32
6. The humanistic approach ............................................................................................................. 33
6.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 33
6.2 Roger’s theory ...................................................................................................................... 33
6.2.1 personality and self ...................................................................................................... 33
6.2.2 personality development and conditions for growth ................................................... 34
6.3 Maslow’s theory ................................................................................................................... 34
6.3.1 motivation and hierarchy of needs ............................................................................... 34
6.3.2 self-actualization and peak experiences ....................................................................... 35
6.3.3 Maslows concept of health growth .............................................................................. 35
6.4 extending the humanistic approach ..................................................................................... 35
6.4.1 existential psychology................................................................................................... 35
6.4.2 FrankL’s logotherapy .................................................................................................... 36
6.4.3 positive psychology (Seligman) ..................................................................................... 36
7.. Perspectives on development ......................................................................................................... 38
7.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 38
7.2 development: an overview ................................................................................................... 38
7.3 development and gender role development ........................................................................ 39
7.3.1 personality and its origin .............................................................................................. 39
2
, 7.3.2 perspectives on personality .......................................................................................... 39
7.3.3 ` Development of gender roles ....................................................................................... 40
8. Perspectives on social behaviour ................................................................................................. 41
8.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 41
8.1.1 methods & issues.......................................................................................................... 41
8.2 perspectives on aggression................................................................................................... 41
8.2.1 definition and methods ................................................................................................ 41
8.2.2 theories......................................................................................................................... 42
8.2.3 aggression and the media ............................................................................................. 43
8.3 perspectives on prosocial behaviour .................................................................................... 43
8.3.1 Theories of altruism ...................................................................................................... 44
9. Perspectives on abnormal behaviour ........................................................................................... 45
9.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 45
9.2 perspectives on aetiology and treatment ............................................................................. 45
9.2.1 biological approach....................................................................................................... 45
9.2.2 behaviourist approach .................................................................................................. 46
9.2.3 cognitive approach ....................................................................................................... 46
9.2.4 psychodynamic approach ............................................................................................. 47
9.2.5 humanistic approach .................................................................................................... 47
9.3 evaluating therapeutic techniques ....................................................................................... 47
10. psychology in perspective ........................................................................................................ 48
Literature ............................................................................................................................................. 49
3
, 1. Behaviour and psychologie
1.1 introduction
Goal: understanding behaviour in all its forms
Psychology uses systemic observations
Four challenges:
1. Complexity
2. Self-awareness (bias)
3. Reactivity
4. Causality
The development and evaluation of a theory depends not simply on the available data, but also on
social and personal factors (experience of researcher and the culture)
Naïve realism = seeing things simply as they are
Perception = an active process involving selection, organization, and interpretation
Selective attention = focussing on one thing (bottom-up processing)
Top-down is bringing in your own experience and expectation
Ambiguous figure = a picture of visual that can be perceived in more ways
Gestalt theory (Kohler) →organized whole
We tend to group similar object (principle of similarity), and we typically see objects that are close
together as a group (principle of proximity). We also create a pattern out of a complex set of
unconnected elements (closure)
Schemata = mental framework which organizes knowledge, believes and expectations as a guide
Als je denkt aan een slaapkamer, dan zie je een bed, dat is een kader waarin je denkt .
All schematas carry the risk of distorting reality (stereotypes)
Disciplines or psychology:
1. Biological
2. Behaviourist
3. Cognitive
4. Psychodynamic
5. Humanistic
Complementarity = a concept to deal with to existing models which are both useful, but not directly
reconcilable
(Example on blind men touching an elephant and they were al partially right, but not completely)
The impact of a culture is a broad issue and necessary for understanding the approaches and who and
where it came from
4
,1.2 Origin
Psychology was ‘born’ around 1870-1900
Psychology is a combination of philosophy and science
Two philosophers:
1. Wundt
Experimental research
He studied medicine and psychics, and founded psychology.
Field: basic mental processes (structuralism)
2. James
Also studies medicine, gave lessons in philosophy and wrote a book, which he was dissatisfied about.
Field: How the mind works(functionalism)
1.3 Methods
Empirical science (observation)
The observation must be organized observations
Theory, induction or deduction, hypothesis
Introspections = analyse yourself
Critique: selective perception and private experiences
Public techniques must be used, this means some observation which all researchers agree on (like an
arm movement upwards)
Types of data collection:
1. Observation
a. Self-report (interviews, surveys, psychological testing)
b. Direct observation
Research setting can be a laboratory (experimental studies) or in the field (non-experimental like
observation or case study, interviews, and surveys))
Bystander apathy = situation in which people do not intervene in an emergency
Self-report can be somewhat inaccurate because it isn’t really measured
Self-report can also do thing to our memory, because our memory isn’t always right.
Experience sampling methods (ESP) using communication technology to study thought and feeling in
real time as a method (beep goes off during the day and then you must answer a question)
Types of direct observations:
- Naturalistic observation (in the field, unhidden observation can lead to reactivity)
- Participant observation
Unobtrusive measures = measuring behaviour indirect to reduce reactivity (checking how many times
a book is borrowed)
5
, Critique on case studies: representativeness, poor tool for understanding a cause (because too much
has happened)
Illusory correlation = a correlation which in real life isn’t there
Diffusion of responsibility = the tendency to feel less personal responsibility. (example: no tintervering
because you think someone else will)
Social influence = behaviour is affected by others
Concerns about experiments:
1.. Ethical
2.. Possibility (haalbaar)
Quasi-experiment = participant is assigned to groups based on variables which cannot be manipulated
(sex, height, ages)
They are not as clear as a normal experiment, the quasi experiments are in between experiment and
correlation
Ethics:
- Avoid harming
- Benefits and interests must be in balance
Deception is allowed if:
- the research cannot be done with another method,
- when they are not forced,
- full debriefing and a justifiable outcome of the value
Obedience to authority
6
1. Behaviour and psychologie............................................................................................................. 4
1.1 introduction.................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Origin ............................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 5
2. The biological approach ................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 introduction phantom limb = feeling something when you miss that arm ............................ 7
2.2 interactions of mind and body in behaviour ........................................................................... 7
2.2.1 effects of body on mind .................................................................................................. 7
2.2.2 The effects of mind on body ........................................................................................... 9
2.3 hereditary basis of behaviour ............................................................................................... 10
3. The behaviourist approach ........................................................................................................... 12
3.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 classical conditioning(learning) ............................................................................................ 13
3.2.1 classical conditioning .................................................................................................... 13
3.2.2 classical conditioning phenomena ................................................................................ 13
3.2.3 application of classical conditioning ............................................................................. 14
3.3 operant conditioning ............................................................................................................ 15
3.3.1 operant conditioning .................................................................................................... 15
3.3.2 operant conditioning phenomena ................................................................................ 17
3.4 application and implication of conditioning ......................................................................... 18
3.4.1 negative reinforcer and the aversive control of operant behaviour ............................. 18
3.4.2 interrelationships of classical and operant conditioning .............................................. 18
4.. Cognitive approach.......................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.1 autonomic conditioning and biofeedback .................................................................... 19
4.1.2 Biological constraints on learning ................................................................................. 20
4.2 learning and memory ........................................................................................................... 20
4.2.1 information gathering and memory ............................................................................. 20
4.2.2 model of memory & encoding and storing ................................................................... 21
4.2.3 Forgetting ..................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.4 Memory as reconstruction ........................................................................................... 23
4.2.5 Improving memories..................................................................................................... 23
4.3 problem solving .................................................................................................................... 23
1
, 4.4 language ............................................................................................................................... 24
4.5 other area’s .......................................................................................................................... 25
5. the psychodynamic approach........................................................................................................... 27
5.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 27
5.2 Freud & psychoanalyses ....................................................................................................... 27
5.2.1 Freuds assumptions about behaviour........................................................................... 27
5.2.2 exploring the working mind .......................................................................................... 27
5.2.3 model of personality ..................................................................................................... 28
5.2.4 psychosexual stages of development ........................................................................... 28
5.2.5 fixation and regression during development ................................................................ 29
5.2.6 anxiety and defence ..................................................................................................... 29
5.2.7 observing the unconscious on behaviour ..................................................................... 30
5.3 Neo-Freudian and Non-Freudian theories ............................................................................ 31
5.3.1 Jung .............................................................................................................................. 31
5.3.2 Adler ............................................................................................................................. 31
5.3.3 Bowlby .......................................................................................................................... 32
5.3.4 Horney ......................................................................................................................... 32
5.3.5 Erikson .......................................................................................................................... 32
6. The humanistic approach ............................................................................................................. 33
6.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 33
6.2 Roger’s theory ...................................................................................................................... 33
6.2.1 personality and self ...................................................................................................... 33
6.2.2 personality development and conditions for growth ................................................... 34
6.3 Maslow’s theory ................................................................................................................... 34
6.3.1 motivation and hierarchy of needs ............................................................................... 34
6.3.2 self-actualization and peak experiences ....................................................................... 35
6.3.3 Maslows concept of health growth .............................................................................. 35
6.4 extending the humanistic approach ..................................................................................... 35
6.4.1 existential psychology................................................................................................... 35
6.4.2 FrankL’s logotherapy .................................................................................................... 36
6.4.3 positive psychology (Seligman) ..................................................................................... 36
7.. Perspectives on development ......................................................................................................... 38
7.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 38
7.2 development: an overview ................................................................................................... 38
7.3 development and gender role development ........................................................................ 39
7.3.1 personality and its origin .............................................................................................. 39
2
, 7.3.2 perspectives on personality .......................................................................................... 39
7.3.3 ` Development of gender roles ....................................................................................... 40
8. Perspectives on social behaviour ................................................................................................. 41
8.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 41
8.1.1 methods & issues.......................................................................................................... 41
8.2 perspectives on aggression................................................................................................... 41
8.2.1 definition and methods ................................................................................................ 41
8.2.2 theories......................................................................................................................... 42
8.2.3 aggression and the media ............................................................................................. 43
8.3 perspectives on prosocial behaviour .................................................................................... 43
8.3.1 Theories of altruism ...................................................................................................... 44
9. Perspectives on abnormal behaviour ........................................................................................... 45
9.1 introduction .......................................................................................................................... 45
9.2 perspectives on aetiology and treatment ............................................................................. 45
9.2.1 biological approach....................................................................................................... 45
9.2.2 behaviourist approach .................................................................................................. 46
9.2.3 cognitive approach ....................................................................................................... 46
9.2.4 psychodynamic approach ............................................................................................. 47
9.2.5 humanistic approach .................................................................................................... 47
9.3 evaluating therapeutic techniques ....................................................................................... 47
10. psychology in perspective ........................................................................................................ 48
Literature ............................................................................................................................................. 49
3
, 1. Behaviour and psychologie
1.1 introduction
Goal: understanding behaviour in all its forms
Psychology uses systemic observations
Four challenges:
1. Complexity
2. Self-awareness (bias)
3. Reactivity
4. Causality
The development and evaluation of a theory depends not simply on the available data, but also on
social and personal factors (experience of researcher and the culture)
Naïve realism = seeing things simply as they are
Perception = an active process involving selection, organization, and interpretation
Selective attention = focussing on one thing (bottom-up processing)
Top-down is bringing in your own experience and expectation
Ambiguous figure = a picture of visual that can be perceived in more ways
Gestalt theory (Kohler) →organized whole
We tend to group similar object (principle of similarity), and we typically see objects that are close
together as a group (principle of proximity). We also create a pattern out of a complex set of
unconnected elements (closure)
Schemata = mental framework which organizes knowledge, believes and expectations as a guide
Als je denkt aan een slaapkamer, dan zie je een bed, dat is een kader waarin je denkt .
All schematas carry the risk of distorting reality (stereotypes)
Disciplines or psychology:
1. Biological
2. Behaviourist
3. Cognitive
4. Psychodynamic
5. Humanistic
Complementarity = a concept to deal with to existing models which are both useful, but not directly
reconcilable
(Example on blind men touching an elephant and they were al partially right, but not completely)
The impact of a culture is a broad issue and necessary for understanding the approaches and who and
where it came from
4
,1.2 Origin
Psychology was ‘born’ around 1870-1900
Psychology is a combination of philosophy and science
Two philosophers:
1. Wundt
Experimental research
He studied medicine and psychics, and founded psychology.
Field: basic mental processes (structuralism)
2. James
Also studies medicine, gave lessons in philosophy and wrote a book, which he was dissatisfied about.
Field: How the mind works(functionalism)
1.3 Methods
Empirical science (observation)
The observation must be organized observations
Theory, induction or deduction, hypothesis
Introspections = analyse yourself
Critique: selective perception and private experiences
Public techniques must be used, this means some observation which all researchers agree on (like an
arm movement upwards)
Types of data collection:
1. Observation
a. Self-report (interviews, surveys, psychological testing)
b. Direct observation
Research setting can be a laboratory (experimental studies) or in the field (non-experimental like
observation or case study, interviews, and surveys))
Bystander apathy = situation in which people do not intervene in an emergency
Self-report can be somewhat inaccurate because it isn’t really measured
Self-report can also do thing to our memory, because our memory isn’t always right.
Experience sampling methods (ESP) using communication technology to study thought and feeling in
real time as a method (beep goes off during the day and then you must answer a question)
Types of direct observations:
- Naturalistic observation (in the field, unhidden observation can lead to reactivity)
- Participant observation
Unobtrusive measures = measuring behaviour indirect to reduce reactivity (checking how many times
a book is borrowed)
5
, Critique on case studies: representativeness, poor tool for understanding a cause (because too much
has happened)
Illusory correlation = a correlation which in real life isn’t there
Diffusion of responsibility = the tendency to feel less personal responsibility. (example: no tintervering
because you think someone else will)
Social influence = behaviour is affected by others
Concerns about experiments:
1.. Ethical
2.. Possibility (haalbaar)
Quasi-experiment = participant is assigned to groups based on variables which cannot be manipulated
(sex, height, ages)
They are not as clear as a normal experiment, the quasi experiments are in between experiment and
correlation
Ethics:
- Avoid harming
- Benefits and interests must be in balance
Deception is allowed if:
- the research cannot be done with another method,
- when they are not forced,
- full debriefing and a justifiable outcome of the value
Obedience to authority
6
