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Summary Data structures and algorithms

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This book is about data structures and algorithms in concise manner.

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Lecture Notes for Algorithm Analysis and Design

Sandeep Sen1

November 15, 2009




1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India.
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,Contents

1 Model and Analysis 3
1.1 Computing Fibonacci numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Fast Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Model of Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Other models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 External memory model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 Parallel Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Warm up problems 11
2.1 Euclid’s algorithm for GCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 Extended Euclid’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Finding the k-th element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Choosing a random splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Median of medians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Sorting words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Mergeable heaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.1 Merging Binomial Heaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 Optimization I :
Brute force and Greedy strategy 20
3.1 Heuristic search approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1.1 Game Trees * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 A framework for Greedy Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.1 Maximal Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.2 A Scheduling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Efficient data structures for MST algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.1 A simple data structure for union-find . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.2 A faster scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.3 The slowest growing function ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.4 Putting things together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1

, 3.3.5 Path compression only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Optimization II :
Dynamic Programming 33
4.1 A generic dynamic programming formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Illustrative examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.1 Context Free Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.2 Longest monotonic subsequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.3 Function approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.4 Viterbi’s algorithm for Expectation Maximization . . . . . . . 37

5 Searching 39
5.1 Skip Lists - a simple dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.1 Construction of Skip-lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 Treaps : Randomized Search Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 Universal Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3.1 Example of a Universal Hash function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Perfect Hash function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.1 Converting expected bound to worst case bound . . . . . . . . 47
5.5 A log log N priority queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6 Multidimensional Searching and Geometric algorithms 50
6.1 Interval Trees and Range Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.1.1 Two Dimensional Range Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.2 k-d trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3 Priority Search Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.4 Planar Convex Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.4.1 Jarvis March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4.2 Graham’s Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4.3 Sorting and Convex hulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.5 A Quickhull Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.5.1 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.5.2 Expected running time ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.6 Point location using persistent data structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

7 Fast Fourier Transform and Applications 64
7.1 Polynomial evaluation and interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2 Cooley-Tukey algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.3 The butterfly network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67


2

, 7.4 Schonage and Strassen’s fast multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8 String matching and finger printing 71
8.1 Rabin Karp fingerprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2 KMP algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2.1 Potential method and amortized analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.2.2 Analysis of the KMP algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.2.3 Pattern Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.3 Generalized String matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.3.1 Convolution based approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

9 Graph Algorithms 78
9.1 Applications of DFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.1.1 Strongly Connected Components (SCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.1.2 Finding Biconnected Components (BCC) . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.2 Path problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.1 Bellman Ford SSSP Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.2 Dijkstra’s SSSP algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.3 Floyd-Warshall APSP algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.3 Maximum flows in graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.3.1 Max Flow Min Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.3.2 Ford and Fulkerson method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.3.3 Edmond Karp augmentation strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.3.4 Monotonicity Lemma and bounding the iterations . . . . . . . 87
9.4 Global Mincut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.4.1 The contraction algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.4.2 Probability of mincut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

10 NP Completeness and Approximation Algorithms 92
10.1 Classes and reducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.2 Cook Levin theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.3 Common NP complete problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.3.1 Other important complexity classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.4 Combating hardness with approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10.4.1 Equal partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10.4.2 Greedy set cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.4.3 The metric TSP problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4.4 Three colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.4.5 Maxcut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101



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