Brain and behaviour:
Evaluate the use of one technique used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
Discuss the use of one or more techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
Discuss one example of neuroplasticity.
Evaluate one or more theories or studies related to neuroplasticity.
Discuss one or more effects of one neurotransmitter on human behaviour.
Discuss the effects of one or more neurotransmitters on human behaviour.
To what extent does one neurotransmitter affect human behaviour.
Evaluate research related to localization of function.
Discuss localization of function in the brain.
Hormones and pheromones:
Discuss one or more effects of one hormone on human behaviour.
Discuss the effects of one or more hormones on human behaviour.
To what extent does one hormone affect human behaviour.
Discuss research related to pheromones and behaviour.
Genes and behaviour:
Evaluate one study or theory related to the influence of genes on behaviour.
Discuss how genes may affect human behaviour.
To what extent do genes influence human behaviour?
Discuss how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behaviour.
Discuss one or more evolutionary explanations for one behaviour.
To what extent can evolution explain one behaviour.
Research methods:
Discuss one research method used to study the brain and behaviour.
Evaluate one or more research methods used to study the brain and behaviour.
Evaluate the use of one research method used to study hormones and/or pheromones and
behaviour.
Evaluate how and why one research method is used to study genetics and behaviour.
Discuss the use of one or more research methods used in the biological approach to understanding
human behaviour.
Ethical considerations:
Discuss one ethical consideration relevant to studies on the brain and behaviour.
Discuss one ethical consideration relevant to one study on hormones and/or pheromones and
behaviour.
Discuss ethical considerations relevant to research on hormones and pheromones and behaviour.
Discuss one or more ethical considerations relevant to research on genetics and behaviour.
Discuss one or more ethical considerations related to research in the biological approach to
understanding human behaviour.
Techniques used to study the brain:
Brain imaging techniques are techniques used to study the active human brain and are especially useful
in neuropsychology. The different types of techniques include: PET scan, MRI, fMRI, EEG and CAT scan.
This essay will focus on MRI and/or fMRI using the studies:
,Maguire (2000) and HM - Milner and Scoville (1957) and Harris and Fiske (2006)
A magnetic resonance imaging scan (MRI) produces a three-dimensional picture of the brain by
measuring the moving hydrogen nuclei in the body. It makes use of a magnetic field combined with pulses
of radio wave energy. The person being scanned is placed in a tube-like machine and asked to keep still.
MRI brain scans can show tumors, bleeding in the brain, nerve injury, stroke etc. It’s preferred because
it’s a non-invasive process and does not require surgery and manual exploration. It produces detailed 3D
images, and does not use radiation. However it can be expensive.
Milner and Scoville (1957)
Aim: to perform brain surgery on HM to cure him of his epileptic seizures.
● Henry Molaison known anonymously as (HM) suffered epileptic seizures after a head injury at
age 9
● Doctors performed surgery to stop seizures and the tissue from temporal lobe, and
hippocampus was removed
Results
● The seizures ended but HM suffered anterograde amnesia which is when people could recall
information from early life but could not form new memories.
● HM was studied using an MRI in 1997
Findings:
● The brain scan showed that there was damage to the hippocampus and the area surrounding it
as well as the amygdala.
Conclusion:
● This surgery to remove part of the temporal lobe and hippocampus resulted in anterograde
amnesia.
Link to question:
● By using MRI scanning technology, researchers were able to investigate the effects of
biological factors on behaviour and make a correlation between certain brain areas and
memory and other behaviour.
● MRI scans were used to see the structures of the brain to determine the extent of brain
damage in HM’s brain.
● The structures would not be able to be clearly seen using other technologies such as EEGs or
CTs.
Maguire (2000) also aimed to investigate whether structural changes could be observed in the brains of
those people who had extensive spatial navigational skills. 16 right handed london taxi drivers were
chosen as the experimental group and 50 right handed non taxi drivers were chosen as the control group.
The mean age did not differ between the two groups. The MRI scans of the people were analysed and
results showed that the right posterior hippocampus showed more distribution of grey matter than the
anterior hippocampus which suggested that there is redistribution of grey matter. There was also a
positive correlation between the number of years spent as a taxi driver and the volume in the right
posterior hippocampus.
These studies provide evidence for therefore suggesting that…… However, critiquing these techniques, it
is often said that the biological approach to studying human behaviour often uses the reductionist
approach which is essentially the idea of breaking down complex ideas and emotions that can be
influenced by many factors into something that is simple.
On the other hand, an fMRI measures the flow of oxygenated blood to certain areas of the brain. Part of
the same MRI machine, an fMRI measures the oxygenated blood flow to certain areas and a computer
,turns the images into a 3D coloured moving image of brain activity (mapped in squares called voxels). It
does not use radioactive substances but it is expensive. It is not invasive.
Harris and Fiske (2006) aimed to find the biological correlates of stereotypes.
A group of people were made to look at pictures of humans and social outgroups (drug addicts, homeless
people, etc) and affluent businessmen and athletes while being monitored on an fMRI. When looking at
pictures of humans, the medial prefrontal cortex was activated but this was not there when looking at
pictures of social outgroups such as homeless people or drug addicts. Instead, areas in the brain relating
to disgust were activated. Researchers concluded that there is a dehumanization of social outgroups.
The strength of this case study is the fact that fMRI is accurate and showed areas of the brain that were
active- however, they only correlated the medial prefrontal cortex to the behaviour and did not show a
causation. Just because two variables show a positive trend, this does not mean x causes y or vice versa.
Localisation:
Localization refers to the notion that specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours
such as thoughts and feelings. It is assumed certain behaviours are localised in specific areas of the brain
and it is assumed those areas caused the behaviour. This can be linked to following a reductionist
approach. Localization can cause errors in analysis, there is significant variability in brain anatomy
between different people due to genetic predisposition and neuroplasticity. Furthermore, brain anatomy
can change overtime due to epigenetics or neuroplasticity due to varying external stimuli. Using a
reductionist approach is easy for researchers to study because it fails to address aspects such as
sociocultural and cognitive aspects.
Holism (distributed functioning)/lateralization: Functions of the brain are the result of the brain working as
a whole, not specific regions. Lateralization means the two hemispheres work together and act differently.
Brain is a complex organ, its structure is only being discovered, it's a deeply complex question and it
needs so much more research put into it. It is often difficult to find the correlation between two variables
due to the complexity involved of the area in question and the poor image quality. The brain is highly
interconnected; we don't know where something starts or ends.
Draganski et al. (2004) and Milner and Scoville (1957) for localisation and Sperry and Gazzaniga
(1968) for lateralization.
Draganski (2004) aimed to test if there were structural changes associated with learning a new skill. 21
females and 3 males were asked to learn the skill of juggling using a 3 ball cascade. Before they learnt
the skill a MRI was conducted. After 3 months of learning the skill, a second MRI was conducted. They
were then asked to stop juggling for the next 3 months and at the end, the third MRI was taken. The
control group was asked to not juggle for 6 months in total. The first MRI showed no significant difference
in the grey matter between the experimental and control group. However, the second MRI showed a
significant increase in the grey matter in the mid temporal region in the juggling group compared to the
control. The final MRI (after they stopped juggling) shows that grey matter has decreased. The
researchers concluded that juggling relies on visual memory and is localized in the mid temporal region.
Sperry and Gazzaniga (1968) aimed to test the extent to which the two hemispheres have specialised
functions. In the brains of patients with epilepsy, the corpus callosum was cut (which is a muscle that
connects the two hemispheres). This is done as treatment for severe epilepsy. The participants were then
made to do three tasks (‘describe what you see’ task, a tactile task and a drawing task). The object is
placed on the left visual field and the right visual field conversely. The left visual field is interpreted by the
right hemisphere and the right visual field is interpreted by the left hemisphere. In the first task, the left
hemisphere performed better and the participants were able to see and describe the objects on the right
, visual field. In the second task, participants were able to describe the texture of the object on the right
visual field and so the left hemisphere performed better. → Tactile information was presented on either
the left hand or right hand but their eyes were covered (they did not see the object).
In the third task: drawing task, the right hemisphere performed better as people were able to draw images
shown on the left visual field. The researchers concluded that lateralization exists and there are key
differences between the two hemispheres. The LH is focused on speech and language and the RH is
focused on visual memory.
In Milner and Scoville (1957) the hippocampus and temporal region was where memory was localised
and the removal and damage to this area led to anterograde amnesia.
Neuroplasticity:
Neuroplasticity refers to how the brain changes over time as a result of environmental influences. It is
known as brain plasticity. Although genes provide the basic outline for brain development, environmental
influences shape gene expression in the brain through the process of neuroplasticity. Brain structure is
highly heritable but the extent of heritability remains open to debate. It’s difficult to research because it's in
the early stage of research.
Neuroplasticity involves the brain making new synaptic connections when learning a new skill, leading to
stronger synaptic connections and redistribution of grey matter to a specific area (the more you engage in
it, etc.)
Maguire et al. (2000), Draganski (2004) and Gaser and Schlaug (2003)
Gaser and Schlaug (2003) aimed to test the differences in brain structure by an MRI between
professional musicians (who practised for at least an hour a day), amateur musicians and non musicians.
An MRI was conducted that compared the grey matter in the brains. The professional musicians had a
high level of grey matter, amateurs had an intermediate level of grey matter and the non musicians had
the lowest level of grey matter in several areas involved in playing music: motor regions and inferior
temporal areas. They concluded that learning a new skill strengthens neural synapses in certain areas of
the brain demonstrating brain plasticity.
Neurotransmission:
Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999), Passamonti et al (2012) and Fisher et. al (2005)
The nervous system is composed of neurons that send signals from internal or external changes.
This method through which neurons send these signals is known as neurotransmission. When an electric
impulse passes along an axon, it releases neurotransmitters (stored in bulbs called terminal buttons).
Neurotransmission: method by which messages are sent
○ Electric impulse travels down the body/axon of the neuron from the dendrites
○ The axons then releases neurotransmitters which cross the gap between two neurons
(synapse) released from terminal buttons
■ Neurotransmitters: body's natural chemical messengers that transmit information
from one neuron to another
■ It activates the receptor
○ After crossing the synapse, neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the postsynaptic
membrane (like a key in a lock)
○ Message is passed on through this mechanism
○ Neurotransmitters are either broken down in the synapse OR reuptake (Reabsorbed by
the terminal buttons)
Evaluate the use of one technique used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
Discuss the use of one or more techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
Discuss one example of neuroplasticity.
Evaluate one or more theories or studies related to neuroplasticity.
Discuss one or more effects of one neurotransmitter on human behaviour.
Discuss the effects of one or more neurotransmitters on human behaviour.
To what extent does one neurotransmitter affect human behaviour.
Evaluate research related to localization of function.
Discuss localization of function in the brain.
Hormones and pheromones:
Discuss one or more effects of one hormone on human behaviour.
Discuss the effects of one or more hormones on human behaviour.
To what extent does one hormone affect human behaviour.
Discuss research related to pheromones and behaviour.
Genes and behaviour:
Evaluate one study or theory related to the influence of genes on behaviour.
Discuss how genes may affect human behaviour.
To what extent do genes influence human behaviour?
Discuss how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behaviour.
Discuss one or more evolutionary explanations for one behaviour.
To what extent can evolution explain one behaviour.
Research methods:
Discuss one research method used to study the brain and behaviour.
Evaluate one or more research methods used to study the brain and behaviour.
Evaluate the use of one research method used to study hormones and/or pheromones and
behaviour.
Evaluate how and why one research method is used to study genetics and behaviour.
Discuss the use of one or more research methods used in the biological approach to understanding
human behaviour.
Ethical considerations:
Discuss one ethical consideration relevant to studies on the brain and behaviour.
Discuss one ethical consideration relevant to one study on hormones and/or pheromones and
behaviour.
Discuss ethical considerations relevant to research on hormones and pheromones and behaviour.
Discuss one or more ethical considerations relevant to research on genetics and behaviour.
Discuss one or more ethical considerations related to research in the biological approach to
understanding human behaviour.
Techniques used to study the brain:
Brain imaging techniques are techniques used to study the active human brain and are especially useful
in neuropsychology. The different types of techniques include: PET scan, MRI, fMRI, EEG and CAT scan.
This essay will focus on MRI and/or fMRI using the studies:
,Maguire (2000) and HM - Milner and Scoville (1957) and Harris and Fiske (2006)
A magnetic resonance imaging scan (MRI) produces a three-dimensional picture of the brain by
measuring the moving hydrogen nuclei in the body. It makes use of a magnetic field combined with pulses
of radio wave energy. The person being scanned is placed in a tube-like machine and asked to keep still.
MRI brain scans can show tumors, bleeding in the brain, nerve injury, stroke etc. It’s preferred because
it’s a non-invasive process and does not require surgery and manual exploration. It produces detailed 3D
images, and does not use radiation. However it can be expensive.
Milner and Scoville (1957)
Aim: to perform brain surgery on HM to cure him of his epileptic seizures.
● Henry Molaison known anonymously as (HM) suffered epileptic seizures after a head injury at
age 9
● Doctors performed surgery to stop seizures and the tissue from temporal lobe, and
hippocampus was removed
Results
● The seizures ended but HM suffered anterograde amnesia which is when people could recall
information from early life but could not form new memories.
● HM was studied using an MRI in 1997
Findings:
● The brain scan showed that there was damage to the hippocampus and the area surrounding it
as well as the amygdala.
Conclusion:
● This surgery to remove part of the temporal lobe and hippocampus resulted in anterograde
amnesia.
Link to question:
● By using MRI scanning technology, researchers were able to investigate the effects of
biological factors on behaviour and make a correlation between certain brain areas and
memory and other behaviour.
● MRI scans were used to see the structures of the brain to determine the extent of brain
damage in HM’s brain.
● The structures would not be able to be clearly seen using other technologies such as EEGs or
CTs.
Maguire (2000) also aimed to investigate whether structural changes could be observed in the brains of
those people who had extensive spatial navigational skills. 16 right handed london taxi drivers were
chosen as the experimental group and 50 right handed non taxi drivers were chosen as the control group.
The mean age did not differ between the two groups. The MRI scans of the people were analysed and
results showed that the right posterior hippocampus showed more distribution of grey matter than the
anterior hippocampus which suggested that there is redistribution of grey matter. There was also a
positive correlation between the number of years spent as a taxi driver and the volume in the right
posterior hippocampus.
These studies provide evidence for therefore suggesting that…… However, critiquing these techniques, it
is often said that the biological approach to studying human behaviour often uses the reductionist
approach which is essentially the idea of breaking down complex ideas and emotions that can be
influenced by many factors into something that is simple.
On the other hand, an fMRI measures the flow of oxygenated blood to certain areas of the brain. Part of
the same MRI machine, an fMRI measures the oxygenated blood flow to certain areas and a computer
,turns the images into a 3D coloured moving image of brain activity (mapped in squares called voxels). It
does not use radioactive substances but it is expensive. It is not invasive.
Harris and Fiske (2006) aimed to find the biological correlates of stereotypes.
A group of people were made to look at pictures of humans and social outgroups (drug addicts, homeless
people, etc) and affluent businessmen and athletes while being monitored on an fMRI. When looking at
pictures of humans, the medial prefrontal cortex was activated but this was not there when looking at
pictures of social outgroups such as homeless people or drug addicts. Instead, areas in the brain relating
to disgust were activated. Researchers concluded that there is a dehumanization of social outgroups.
The strength of this case study is the fact that fMRI is accurate and showed areas of the brain that were
active- however, they only correlated the medial prefrontal cortex to the behaviour and did not show a
causation. Just because two variables show a positive trend, this does not mean x causes y or vice versa.
Localisation:
Localization refers to the notion that specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours
such as thoughts and feelings. It is assumed certain behaviours are localised in specific areas of the brain
and it is assumed those areas caused the behaviour. This can be linked to following a reductionist
approach. Localization can cause errors in analysis, there is significant variability in brain anatomy
between different people due to genetic predisposition and neuroplasticity. Furthermore, brain anatomy
can change overtime due to epigenetics or neuroplasticity due to varying external stimuli. Using a
reductionist approach is easy for researchers to study because it fails to address aspects such as
sociocultural and cognitive aspects.
Holism (distributed functioning)/lateralization: Functions of the brain are the result of the brain working as
a whole, not specific regions. Lateralization means the two hemispheres work together and act differently.
Brain is a complex organ, its structure is only being discovered, it's a deeply complex question and it
needs so much more research put into it. It is often difficult to find the correlation between two variables
due to the complexity involved of the area in question and the poor image quality. The brain is highly
interconnected; we don't know where something starts or ends.
Draganski et al. (2004) and Milner and Scoville (1957) for localisation and Sperry and Gazzaniga
(1968) for lateralization.
Draganski (2004) aimed to test if there were structural changes associated with learning a new skill. 21
females and 3 males were asked to learn the skill of juggling using a 3 ball cascade. Before they learnt
the skill a MRI was conducted. After 3 months of learning the skill, a second MRI was conducted. They
were then asked to stop juggling for the next 3 months and at the end, the third MRI was taken. The
control group was asked to not juggle for 6 months in total. The first MRI showed no significant difference
in the grey matter between the experimental and control group. However, the second MRI showed a
significant increase in the grey matter in the mid temporal region in the juggling group compared to the
control. The final MRI (after they stopped juggling) shows that grey matter has decreased. The
researchers concluded that juggling relies on visual memory and is localized in the mid temporal region.
Sperry and Gazzaniga (1968) aimed to test the extent to which the two hemispheres have specialised
functions. In the brains of patients with epilepsy, the corpus callosum was cut (which is a muscle that
connects the two hemispheres). This is done as treatment for severe epilepsy. The participants were then
made to do three tasks (‘describe what you see’ task, a tactile task and a drawing task). The object is
placed on the left visual field and the right visual field conversely. The left visual field is interpreted by the
right hemisphere and the right visual field is interpreted by the left hemisphere. In the first task, the left
hemisphere performed better and the participants were able to see and describe the objects on the right
, visual field. In the second task, participants were able to describe the texture of the object on the right
visual field and so the left hemisphere performed better. → Tactile information was presented on either
the left hand or right hand but their eyes were covered (they did not see the object).
In the third task: drawing task, the right hemisphere performed better as people were able to draw images
shown on the left visual field. The researchers concluded that lateralization exists and there are key
differences between the two hemispheres. The LH is focused on speech and language and the RH is
focused on visual memory.
In Milner and Scoville (1957) the hippocampus and temporal region was where memory was localised
and the removal and damage to this area led to anterograde amnesia.
Neuroplasticity:
Neuroplasticity refers to how the brain changes over time as a result of environmental influences. It is
known as brain plasticity. Although genes provide the basic outline for brain development, environmental
influences shape gene expression in the brain through the process of neuroplasticity. Brain structure is
highly heritable but the extent of heritability remains open to debate. It’s difficult to research because it's in
the early stage of research.
Neuroplasticity involves the brain making new synaptic connections when learning a new skill, leading to
stronger synaptic connections and redistribution of grey matter to a specific area (the more you engage in
it, etc.)
Maguire et al. (2000), Draganski (2004) and Gaser and Schlaug (2003)
Gaser and Schlaug (2003) aimed to test the differences in brain structure by an MRI between
professional musicians (who practised for at least an hour a day), amateur musicians and non musicians.
An MRI was conducted that compared the grey matter in the brains. The professional musicians had a
high level of grey matter, amateurs had an intermediate level of grey matter and the non musicians had
the lowest level of grey matter in several areas involved in playing music: motor regions and inferior
temporal areas. They concluded that learning a new skill strengthens neural synapses in certain areas of
the brain demonstrating brain plasticity.
Neurotransmission:
Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999), Passamonti et al (2012) and Fisher et. al (2005)
The nervous system is composed of neurons that send signals from internal or external changes.
This method through which neurons send these signals is known as neurotransmission. When an electric
impulse passes along an axon, it releases neurotransmitters (stored in bulbs called terminal buttons).
Neurotransmission: method by which messages are sent
○ Electric impulse travels down the body/axon of the neuron from the dendrites
○ The axons then releases neurotransmitters which cross the gap between two neurons
(synapse) released from terminal buttons
■ Neurotransmitters: body's natural chemical messengers that transmit information
from one neuron to another
■ It activates the receptor
○ After crossing the synapse, neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the postsynaptic
membrane (like a key in a lock)
○ Message is passed on through this mechanism
○ Neurotransmitters are either broken down in the synapse OR reuptake (Reabsorbed by
the terminal buttons)
