NURS 208A FINAL.
NURS 208A FINAL CUMULATIVE EXAM OUTLINE
75 questions which includes 2 select all that apply questions
Week 1: Chapters 1, 2, 3 (13 questions)
1. Diffusion, Osmosis
a. Diffusion movement of solutes (ex: gas exchange in the lungs)
b. Osmosis: movement of solvent (e.g., water)
a. Helps regulate fluid balance in the body
i. Crenation: cell shrinkage
ii. Lysis: cells swell and burst
2. Level of prevention: primary, secondary, tertiary
a. Primary Prevention - trying to prevent yourself from getting a disease.
b. Secondary Prevention - trying to detect a disease early and prevent it from getting worse.
c. Tertiary Prevention - trying to improve your quality of life and reduce the symptoms of a disease
you already have.
3. Pathophysiology concepts (slides #10 & 11)
I. Etiology: cause or reason for a disease. May include infectious agents, chemicals, environmental
influences, etc.
II. Idiopathic: unknown case
III. Iatrogenic: unintended effect of a medical treatment
IV. Risk factors: tendencies that enhances risk for developing certain diseases.
○ Ex: Age, gender, health, diet/nutritional status, genetics, etc.
V. Pathogenesis: development and evolution of a disease
,NURS 208A FINAL.
4. Autosomal recessive disorders
I. Single-gene mutation that are passed from an affected parent to an offspring regardless of sex
Healthy is Dominant
Disease is Recessive
○ A person needs two copies of the diseased gene to develop the disorder (hh)
a. Disorders occur only in homozygous recessive allele pairs
ex: Cystic fibrosis, Phenylketonuria, Tay-Sachs Disease
5. Inflammatory response
● Innate immunity
○ Inflammatory response: a response by the body to disease and injury.
○ Mast cells release mediators including histamine, bradykinin, prostaglandins, and cytokines
(messengers) → phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells) activated →
digest and destroy the invading pathogen.
○ Physical effects: blood vessels dilate allowing ↑ of blood flow to the area → gaps appear in
the cell walls → allows fluid and immune cells to pass out of capillaries → immune presence is
strengthened . erythema/redness, warmness/heat, swelling, pain.
,NURS 208A FINAL.
6. Types of cellular adaptation
● Cells attempt to prevent their own death from environmental changes that can cause damage through
adaptation
● May modify their size, numbers, and/or types to maintain homeostasis
● Modifications may be normal or abnormal, permanent or reversible
Types:
➔ Atrophy : degeneration of cells
◆ Occurs due to decreased work demands on the cell → cells decrease in size and number →
utilize less O2 → organelles decrease in size and number
◆ Ex: disuse of muscle, postmenopausal women ovary shrinkage
➔ Hypertrophy: increase in the size of cells
● Occurs due to increased work demand
● Ex. cardiac and skeletal muscle
➔ Hyperplasia: increase in the number of cells
● Often occurs together with hypertrophy
● Usually a result of normal stimuli
○ Ex: menstruation, wound healing, skin warts, BPH
➔ Dysplasia: cell mutation to a different size, shape, and appearance
● Abnormal, potentially reversible by removing promoting factor
● Often implicated as precancerous cell
➔ Metaplasia: cell replaced by another cell type
i. Usually initiated by chronic irritation and inflammation ex: smoking
ii. Does not necessarily lead to cancerous changes
, NURS 208A FINAL.
7. Karyotype:
● a person’s unique set of chromosomes count, appearance, 46XY (male) 46XX (female)
○ TRISOMY 21
■ Down Syndrome
■ 3 copies of chromosome 21
■ KARYOTYPE
● MALE: 47XY + 21
● FEMALE: 47XX + 21
○ MONOSOMY X
■ Turner’s Syndrome
■ deletion of an X chromosome
■ much more common in pregnancies that do not survive to term
■ affects ONLY FEMALES
● develop gonadal streaks
■ KARYOTYPE
● FEMALES ONLY: 45 X
○ POLYSOMY X
■ Klinefelter’s syndrome
■ an extra X chromosome — could be more than 1
■ ONLY MALES
● infertile
■ KARYOTYPE
● MALES ONLY: 48 XXXY
8. Stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS):
a. Protective stress response
b. A cluster of systemic manifestations that represent an attempt to
cope with a stressor
c. Three stages:
i. ALARM
1. stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
2. releases catecholamines and cortisol
ii. RESISTANCE
1. body chooses the most effective and advantageous
defense
2. cortisol levels and sympathetic NS return to normal
iii. EXHAUSTION
1. if stressor is prolonged or overwhelms the body
2. body becomes depleted and damage may appear
NURS 208A FINAL CUMULATIVE EXAM OUTLINE
75 questions which includes 2 select all that apply questions
Week 1: Chapters 1, 2, 3 (13 questions)
1. Diffusion, Osmosis
a. Diffusion movement of solutes (ex: gas exchange in the lungs)
b. Osmosis: movement of solvent (e.g., water)
a. Helps regulate fluid balance in the body
i. Crenation: cell shrinkage
ii. Lysis: cells swell and burst
2. Level of prevention: primary, secondary, tertiary
a. Primary Prevention - trying to prevent yourself from getting a disease.
b. Secondary Prevention - trying to detect a disease early and prevent it from getting worse.
c. Tertiary Prevention - trying to improve your quality of life and reduce the symptoms of a disease
you already have.
3. Pathophysiology concepts (slides #10 & 11)
I. Etiology: cause or reason for a disease. May include infectious agents, chemicals, environmental
influences, etc.
II. Idiopathic: unknown case
III. Iatrogenic: unintended effect of a medical treatment
IV. Risk factors: tendencies that enhances risk for developing certain diseases.
○ Ex: Age, gender, health, diet/nutritional status, genetics, etc.
V. Pathogenesis: development and evolution of a disease
,NURS 208A FINAL.
4. Autosomal recessive disorders
I. Single-gene mutation that are passed from an affected parent to an offspring regardless of sex
Healthy is Dominant
Disease is Recessive
○ A person needs two copies of the diseased gene to develop the disorder (hh)
a. Disorders occur only in homozygous recessive allele pairs
ex: Cystic fibrosis, Phenylketonuria, Tay-Sachs Disease
5. Inflammatory response
● Innate immunity
○ Inflammatory response: a response by the body to disease and injury.
○ Mast cells release mediators including histamine, bradykinin, prostaglandins, and cytokines
(messengers) → phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells) activated →
digest and destroy the invading pathogen.
○ Physical effects: blood vessels dilate allowing ↑ of blood flow to the area → gaps appear in
the cell walls → allows fluid and immune cells to pass out of capillaries → immune presence is
strengthened . erythema/redness, warmness/heat, swelling, pain.
,NURS 208A FINAL.
6. Types of cellular adaptation
● Cells attempt to prevent their own death from environmental changes that can cause damage through
adaptation
● May modify their size, numbers, and/or types to maintain homeostasis
● Modifications may be normal or abnormal, permanent or reversible
Types:
➔ Atrophy : degeneration of cells
◆ Occurs due to decreased work demands on the cell → cells decrease in size and number →
utilize less O2 → organelles decrease in size and number
◆ Ex: disuse of muscle, postmenopausal women ovary shrinkage
➔ Hypertrophy: increase in the size of cells
● Occurs due to increased work demand
● Ex. cardiac and skeletal muscle
➔ Hyperplasia: increase in the number of cells
● Often occurs together with hypertrophy
● Usually a result of normal stimuli
○ Ex: menstruation, wound healing, skin warts, BPH
➔ Dysplasia: cell mutation to a different size, shape, and appearance
● Abnormal, potentially reversible by removing promoting factor
● Often implicated as precancerous cell
➔ Metaplasia: cell replaced by another cell type
i. Usually initiated by chronic irritation and inflammation ex: smoking
ii. Does not necessarily lead to cancerous changes
, NURS 208A FINAL.
7. Karyotype:
● a person’s unique set of chromosomes count, appearance, 46XY (male) 46XX (female)
○ TRISOMY 21
■ Down Syndrome
■ 3 copies of chromosome 21
■ KARYOTYPE
● MALE: 47XY + 21
● FEMALE: 47XX + 21
○ MONOSOMY X
■ Turner’s Syndrome
■ deletion of an X chromosome
■ much more common in pregnancies that do not survive to term
■ affects ONLY FEMALES
● develop gonadal streaks
■ KARYOTYPE
● FEMALES ONLY: 45 X
○ POLYSOMY X
■ Klinefelter’s syndrome
■ an extra X chromosome — could be more than 1
■ ONLY MALES
● infertile
■ KARYOTYPE
● MALES ONLY: 48 XXXY
8. Stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS):
a. Protective stress response
b. A cluster of systemic manifestations that represent an attempt to
cope with a stressor
c. Three stages:
i. ALARM
1. stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
2. releases catecholamines and cortisol
ii. RESISTANCE
1. body chooses the most effective and advantageous
defense
2. cortisol levels and sympathetic NS return to normal
iii. EXHAUSTION
1. if stressor is prolonged or overwhelms the body
2. body becomes depleted and damage may appear
