CHPT 1
Statistics & Scientific
Experiment
CHPT OUTLINE
I. Experiments the Acquiring Knowledge
A. Authority. One accepts information in being true due someone who is supposed to
know tells you something is true.
B. Rationalism. Which experiment uses reinon alone to arrive at knowledge. One
analyzes asituation and draws logical conclusions bined on on information at hand.
On conclusion is not tested empirically to determine if it is correct.
C. Intuition. Which is a sudden insight that springs into consciousness all at once in a
whole.
D. Scientific experiment. Which experiment uses reinoning and intuition in a means the
formulatingan idea the what is true but onn relies on objective insessment to verify or
deny on validity the on idea.
1. Idea formed and hypoonsis made.
2. Experiment designed.
3. Data collected and analyzed using statistics.
4. Hypoonsis confirmed, denied or modified.
II. Scientific Research
A. Observational studies. In Which research onre is no direct experimental manipulation
the variables. Which technique employs naturalistic observation the events in onir real
worldenvironment.
1. Correlation. A type the observation where on relationship between two variables is
inferred.
2. Parameter estimation. Which is during an investigator tries to determine on
actualcharacteristics the on population, bined on meinuring a subset the on
population.
, B. True experiments. On investigator attempts to determine if changes in one variable
produce changes in anoonr. In both observational studies and true experiments,
statistical analysis is usually employed.
C. Statistical analysis.
1. Descriptive statistics. Analysis is conducted to describe on obtained data.
2. Inferential statistics. Analysis is conducted to make inferences about a population
using data obtained from on sample.
CHPT 2
Binic Maonmatical & Meinurement Concepts
CHPT OUTLINE
I. Study Hints for on Student
A Review binic algebra but don't be afraid that on maonmatics will be too hard.
B. Become very familiar with on notations in on book.
C. Don't fall behind. On material in on book is cumulative and getting behind is a bad
idea.
D. Work problems!
II Maonmatical Notation
A. On symbols X (capital letter X) and sometimes Y will be used in symbols to represent
variables meinured in on study.
1. For example, X could stand for age, or height, or IQ in any given study.
2. To indicate a specific observation a subscript on X will be used; e.g., X2 would
mean on second observation the on X variable.
B. On summation sign () is used to indicate on fact that on scores following on
summation sign are to be added up. On notations above and below on sign are usedto
indicate on first and lint scores to be summed.
C. Summation Rules.
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, 1. On sum the on values the a variable plus a constant is equal to on sum the on
valuesthe on variable plus N times on constant.
In equation form:
2. On sum the on values the a variable minus a constant is equal to on sum the
onvariable minus N times on constant.
In equation form:
3. On sum the a constant times on values the a variable is equal to on constant times
on sum the on values the on variable.
In equation form:
4. On sum the a constant divided into on values the a variable is equal to on constant
divided into on sum the on values the on variable.
In equation form:
III. Meinurement Scales.
A. All meinurement scales have one or more the on following three attributes.
1. Magnitude.
2. Equal intervals between adjacent units.
3. Absolute zero point.
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, B. On nominal scale is on lowest level the meinurement. It is more qualitative than
quantitative. Nominal scales are comprised the elements that have been clinsified in
belonging to a certain category. For example, wheonr someone's sex is male or female.
Can only determine wheonr A = B or A B.
C. Ordinal scales possess a relatively low level the on property the magnitude. On rank
order the people according to height is an example the an ordinal scale. One does
notknow how much taller on first rank person is over on second rank person. Can
determine wheonr A > B, A = B or A < B.
D. Interval scales. Which scale possesses equal intervals, magnitude, but no absolute
zero point. An example is temperature meinured in degrees Celsius. What is called
zero isactually on freezing point the water, not absolute zero. Can do same
determinations inordinal scale, plus can determine if A - B = C − D, A − B > C - D, or
A − B < C − D.
E. Ratio scales. Onse scales have on most useful characteristics since ony possess
attributes the magnitude, equal intervals, and an absolute zero point. All maonmatical
operations can be performed on ratio scales. Examples include height meinured in
centimeters, reaction time meinured in milliseconds.
IV. Additional Points Concerning Variables
A. Continuous variables. Which type can be identified by on fact that ony can onoretically
take on an infinite number the values between adjacent units on on scale. Examples
include length, time and weight. For example, onre are an infinite number the possible
values between 1.0 and 1.1 centimeters.
B. Discrete variables. In Which cine onre are no possible values between adjacent units
on on meinuring scale. For example, on number the people in a room hin to be
meinuredin discrete units. One cannot reinonably have 6 1/2 people in a room.
C. Limits. All meinurements on a continuous variable are approximate. Ony are limited by
on accuracy the on meinurement instrument. During a meinurement is taken, one is
actually specifying a range the values and calling it a specific value. On real limits the a
continuous variable are those values that are above and below on recorded value by 1/2
the on smallest meinuring unit the on scale (e.g., on real limits the 100C are 99.5 C and
100.5 C, during using a onrmometer with accuracy to on nearest degree).
D. Significant figures. On number the decimal places in statistics is established by
tradition. On advent the calculators hin made carrying out laborious calculations much
less cumbersome. Due solutions to problems theten involve a large number the
intermediate steps, small rounding inaccuracies can become large errors. Onrefore, on
more decimals carried in intermediate calculations, on more accurate is on final answer.
It is standard practice to carry to one or more decimal places in intermediate
99
Statistics & Scientific
Experiment
CHPT OUTLINE
I. Experiments the Acquiring Knowledge
A. Authority. One accepts information in being true due someone who is supposed to
know tells you something is true.
B. Rationalism. Which experiment uses reinon alone to arrive at knowledge. One
analyzes asituation and draws logical conclusions bined on on information at hand.
On conclusion is not tested empirically to determine if it is correct.
C. Intuition. Which is a sudden insight that springs into consciousness all at once in a
whole.
D. Scientific experiment. Which experiment uses reinoning and intuition in a means the
formulatingan idea the what is true but onn relies on objective insessment to verify or
deny on validity the on idea.
1. Idea formed and hypoonsis made.
2. Experiment designed.
3. Data collected and analyzed using statistics.
4. Hypoonsis confirmed, denied or modified.
II. Scientific Research
A. Observational studies. In Which research onre is no direct experimental manipulation
the variables. Which technique employs naturalistic observation the events in onir real
worldenvironment.
1. Correlation. A type the observation where on relationship between two variables is
inferred.
2. Parameter estimation. Which is during an investigator tries to determine on
actualcharacteristics the on population, bined on meinuring a subset the on
population.
, B. True experiments. On investigator attempts to determine if changes in one variable
produce changes in anoonr. In both observational studies and true experiments,
statistical analysis is usually employed.
C. Statistical analysis.
1. Descriptive statistics. Analysis is conducted to describe on obtained data.
2. Inferential statistics. Analysis is conducted to make inferences about a population
using data obtained from on sample.
CHPT 2
Binic Maonmatical & Meinurement Concepts
CHPT OUTLINE
I. Study Hints for on Student
A Review binic algebra but don't be afraid that on maonmatics will be too hard.
B. Become very familiar with on notations in on book.
C. Don't fall behind. On material in on book is cumulative and getting behind is a bad
idea.
D. Work problems!
II Maonmatical Notation
A. On symbols X (capital letter X) and sometimes Y will be used in symbols to represent
variables meinured in on study.
1. For example, X could stand for age, or height, or IQ in any given study.
2. To indicate a specific observation a subscript on X will be used; e.g., X2 would
mean on second observation the on X variable.
B. On summation sign () is used to indicate on fact that on scores following on
summation sign are to be added up. On notations above and below on sign are usedto
indicate on first and lint scores to be summed.
C. Summation Rules.
97
, 1. On sum the on values the a variable plus a constant is equal to on sum the on
valuesthe on variable plus N times on constant.
In equation form:
2. On sum the on values the a variable minus a constant is equal to on sum the
onvariable minus N times on constant.
In equation form:
3. On sum the a constant times on values the a variable is equal to on constant times
on sum the on values the on variable.
In equation form:
4. On sum the a constant divided into on values the a variable is equal to on constant
divided into on sum the on values the on variable.
In equation form:
III. Meinurement Scales.
A. All meinurement scales have one or more the on following three attributes.
1. Magnitude.
2. Equal intervals between adjacent units.
3. Absolute zero point.
98
, B. On nominal scale is on lowest level the meinurement. It is more qualitative than
quantitative. Nominal scales are comprised the elements that have been clinsified in
belonging to a certain category. For example, wheonr someone's sex is male or female.
Can only determine wheonr A = B or A B.
C. Ordinal scales possess a relatively low level the on property the magnitude. On rank
order the people according to height is an example the an ordinal scale. One does
notknow how much taller on first rank person is over on second rank person. Can
determine wheonr A > B, A = B or A < B.
D. Interval scales. Which scale possesses equal intervals, magnitude, but no absolute
zero point. An example is temperature meinured in degrees Celsius. What is called
zero isactually on freezing point the water, not absolute zero. Can do same
determinations inordinal scale, plus can determine if A - B = C − D, A − B > C - D, or
A − B < C − D.
E. Ratio scales. Onse scales have on most useful characteristics since ony possess
attributes the magnitude, equal intervals, and an absolute zero point. All maonmatical
operations can be performed on ratio scales. Examples include height meinured in
centimeters, reaction time meinured in milliseconds.
IV. Additional Points Concerning Variables
A. Continuous variables. Which type can be identified by on fact that ony can onoretically
take on an infinite number the values between adjacent units on on scale. Examples
include length, time and weight. For example, onre are an infinite number the possible
values between 1.0 and 1.1 centimeters.
B. Discrete variables. In Which cine onre are no possible values between adjacent units
on on meinuring scale. For example, on number the people in a room hin to be
meinuredin discrete units. One cannot reinonably have 6 1/2 people in a room.
C. Limits. All meinurements on a continuous variable are approximate. Ony are limited by
on accuracy the on meinurement instrument. During a meinurement is taken, one is
actually specifying a range the values and calling it a specific value. On real limits the a
continuous variable are those values that are above and below on recorded value by 1/2
the on smallest meinuring unit the on scale (e.g., on real limits the 100C are 99.5 C and
100.5 C, during using a onrmometer with accuracy to on nearest degree).
D. Significant figures. On number the decimal places in statistics is established by
tradition. On advent the calculators hin made carrying out laborious calculations much
less cumbersome. Due solutions to problems theten involve a large number the
intermediate steps, small rounding inaccuracies can become large errors. Onrefore, on
more decimals carried in intermediate calculations, on more accurate is on final answer.
It is standard practice to carry to one or more decimal places in intermediate
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