PYC1501 SUMMARY NOTES 2022.

PYC1501 SUMMARY NOTES 2022. Basic Psychology. COGNITION: REASONING Reasoning: a process of goal-directed thinking that draws conclusions from a set of facts. Quality of reasoning depends on the suitability or relevance of the reasons we present to support our view. Two structures in reasoning: premise and conclusions Premise: statement from which the conclusion is inferred. Premise provides the evidence that supports your conclusion. Reasoning based on formal rules of logic • Deductive reasoning: drawing a conclusion that follows logically from 2 or more statements or premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion is true. • Inductive reasoning: Using available evidence to generate a conclusion about the likelihood of something. Conclusion is based on the premise, but the premise does not guarantee the conclusion. Premise only provides some support for the likelihood of the conclusion. Used when we form analogies or comparisons. (Assumptions) • Analogical reasoning: when you infer patterns or relations between things, for example, left is to right as up is to down. Differences between formal and informal reasoning: • FORMAL INFORMAL Premises are stated explicitly. Premises are more implied than implicit. The problem that is being reasoned about is (generally) not personally relevant. Personal consequences for every-day life. (leads to weaknesses in reasoning) Structures and rules are obvious. Structures and rules are less obvious. Usually only 1 correct solution. Generally several possible solutions. Fallacies: Conclusions are sometimes based on fallacies or misleading arguments. Fallacies use irrelevant premises to support a conclusion, as if those premises are relevant. Different types of fallacies: • Playing on someone's sympathy to get something done. • Trying to discredit an issue by discrediting the person who supports it. • Relying on the characteristics of a certain group in order to gain support for a particular conclusion. • Using a false analogy. • Using a slightly changed version of someone else's point of view as a basis for your reasoning. Critical reasoning: Thinking critically about the information that you have and looking at all the options and various explanations. Steps to improve critical reasoning ability: • Identify the problem (acknowledge and define) • Keep an open mind (avoid seeing things as extremes, try middle ground) • Remember the difference between language and reality. • Use open ended questions. • Avoid over-generalizations. • Be empathetic. • Obtain relevant information. • Use informal knowledge • Develop collective thinking. COGNITION: THINKING Thinking: a complex process of transforming available information to form new representations. Through thinking we process the symbolic representations of things. Three main symbol systems used in thinking: 1. Images: symbolic representations of objects and their characteristics. 2. Concepts: The categories we form as mental representations of groups of related items. Also abstracts. 1. Hierarchical organisation of concepts: A conceptual hierarchy is made up of at least 3 levels: a superordinate (top) level; intermediate level; subordinate level. Things that have common attributes fall on the same level. 2. Conceptual rules: used to decide whether or not something belongs to a certain concept. 1. Denotative meaning: Formal conceptual hierarchies are based on exact definitions or agreements about attributes in an objective sense. 2. Connotative meaning: personal meanings of concepts. 3. Conceptual errors: one dimensional thought = stereotyping; all-or-nothing thought = wrong. 4. Prototypes: ideal models of concepts. Helps to identify things efficiently. 5. 3. Language: A system of symbols to represent thoughts. 1. Inner speech: or implicit speech 2. Language & thought: not identical. EMOTION Emotion: Type of feeling, linked to the meaning of a particular situation. An emotion may move us to do something. Emotion: combination of physiological arousal combined with perceptual-cognitive processes (thinking and subjective experience), and observable behavioural expressions. COMPONENTS OF EMOTION: 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENT: ◦ Physiological arousal associated with emotions occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the activity of glands, smooth muscles and blood vessels. • ◦ Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system: SYMPATHETIC and PARASYMPATHETIC. Both active at all times; work together to bring about balance in a person's functioning. • ◦ Experience emotion → arousal increases → sympathetic system activates body for emergency action (fight or flight) → arousal leads to purposeful bodily changes that increase chance for survival. • ◦ Sudden, intense emotion → sympathetic effects could cause heart attack/sudden death if heart is weak/old. • ◦ Continued high levels of arousal from action of sympathetic system damages. Parasympathetic counter-balances this by reversing effects of emotional arousal. • ◦ After period of intense emotion: Parasympathetic = heart rate slows, pupil size returns to normal, blood pressure drops. • ◦ In this way PSNS restores balance and helps build up and conserve body energy. • ◦ PSNS responds slower than SNS. • ◦ After intense emotion/shock PS system may overreact, causing parasympathetic rebound. • ◦ PARASYMPATHETIC REBOUND: PS system continues to react even though balance has been restored. May lead to a lower blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, and even sudden death. • ◦ Connection between emotion and autonomic arousal provides the basis for the use of devices like lie detector/polygraph. • ◦ Polygraph records physiological changes in body as a person is being questioned (heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and amount of sweat on the hand). 2. COGNITIVE-PERCEPTUAL COMPONENT: • emotions relate to subjective experience • People’s cognitive processes about events in their lives are the key determinants of the emotion they experience. • Some theorists believe that the cognitive process about an event is as important as the event itself. 3. BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT: • Emotions are usually expressed in body language or non-verbal behaviour. • Basic facial expressions are fairly universal, but the interpretation of many expressions can be shaped by learning. THEORIES OF EMOTION Notes on emotion: • The experience of emotions is the result of the interaction between physiological arousal and psychological arousal. • Psychological arousalis the process whereby people become aware of situations and feelings through conscious thinking. • Psycho-physiological arousal: arousal that involves both physiological and psychological arousal. • Continuum of physiological arousal: one's emotions and behaviour becomes more intense and changes qualitatively as the level of physiological arousal rises. • Feelings are not determined by physiological arousal itself. The meaning that one ascribes to the situation in conjunction with physiological arousal determines the nature and intensity of one's feelings. 1. Schachter's two-factor theory of emotion • Emotions occur when we apply a particular label to general physical arousal. Experience of emotion depends on 2 factors: autonomic arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal. • People use environmental cues as the cause of their arousal. • Stimulation →arousal →label/appraisal →emotion + behaviour • Criticised by people who say that emotions may occur without first experiencing physiological arousal. 2. Cognitive appraisal theory • Components of physiological arousal and cognitive processes are not equally important in the interpretation of emotion. The way we think about (or make cognitive appraisal of) a situation results in emotions. • The meaning attached to the stimulus situation at that moment is more important than the physiological arousal, in other words your interpretation/appraisal of the situation/event is the primary cause of emotions and can result in you experiencing different emotions. • Stimulation →primary appraisal →differentiation of emotion →physiological arousal • Unconscious level of thinking occurs before feeling. CLASSIFICATION OF EMOTIONS 1. Primary and secondary emotions • Robert Plutchik proposed that there are 8 primary/basic emotions: fear; surprise; sadness; disgust; anger; anticipation; joy; acceptance. Combinations of these lead to others. Joy and acceptance = love. Anticipation + joy = optimism. Surprise + sadness = disappointment. • Because of cultural differences in the experience, we now distinguish between primary and secondary emotions. • Primary emotions are those shared by everyone. • Criteria for identifying primary emotions: 1. They must be evident in all cultures. 2. They must contribute to survival. 3. They must be associated with a distinct facial expression. 4. They must be evident in non-human species. • No conclusive agreements on which emotions qualify as basic/primary emotions. • Secondary emotions are those that are found in some cultures. May be considered as the various combinations of primary emotions as influenced by the cultural background. 2. Positive and negative emotions • Positive emotions may create an urge to be creative, to explore, to seek new experiences, and to grow. Positive emotions encourage personal growth and social connection. May lead to the development of emotional intelligence. • Negative emotions may contribute to the development of physical illnesses, such as headaches, stomach ache or ulcers, psychological problems such as depression and anxiety. 3. Emotions vary in intensity • Intensity of emotions vary on a continuum, ranging from extremely low intensity to extremely high intensity. • Intensity of feelings interacts with your level of physiological arousal and the quality of emotion you are experiencing. 4. Internally and externally expressed emotions • emotions are expressed and recognised in different ways • physiological changes are internal expressions of emotions • There are subtle but distinct physiological changes associated with specific emotions. Physiological changes are internal expressions of emotions. • Emotions can be externally expressed through words and through non-verbal communication such as body language, facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, body movement. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INTERPRETATION OF EMOTIONS 1. Gender and emotions • Men are just as affected as women are, but inhibit the expression of their emotions. Women are more open about their feelings. • Certain emotional expressions are expected from women, but not me. Therefore men learn to suppress their emotional expression at an early age. • Men and women are likely to react with different emotions to the same situation. • Men and women differ in their ability to interpret non-verbal cues of emotions. Women are more skilled in noticing and interpreting facial expressions, body cues and tone of voice, possibly because women tend to be the primary caregivers of infants and therefore need to become attuned to the subtleties of emotional expressions. Also, women occupy less powerful positions than men. 2. Cultural differences in emotional experiences • There are cultural differences in the way people think about or interpret and express emotions, as well as in the way they group emotions. • Display rules: refers to culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotions are appropriate. • Main differentiating factor is whether the worldview of the culture is predominantly individualist or collectivist. 3. The context of emotion • Without the knowledge of the context in which emotion is expressed, the correct interpretation or understanding of the nature and intensity of emotions may be very difficult. THE CONCEPT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE • Our ability to manage emotions with intelligence is called emotional intelligence. EI. • EIrefers to a combination of skills, including empathy, self-awareness, sensitivity to the feelings of others, persistence and self-motivation. • EIprovides the link between feelings, character and moral values. • People who do well in life tend to be emotionally intelligent. • Being emotionally intelligent means using and expressing your emotions wisely and appropriately. • We can modify temperament with emotions. • Deficiencies in emotional intelligence increase risk for depression, aggression and violence, anxiety, eating disorders and drug abuse. • Solution for low emotional intelligence is learning self-awareness, self-control and empathy, and the abilities of listening, resolving conflicts, and co-operation. • Abilities of people with high EI: to motivate themselves and keep on trying in the face of frustrations; to control impulses and delay gratification; to regulate moods and not allow emotions to interfere with the ability to think; to recognize emotions in others, and to hope. • First step in gaining emotional intelligence is to know one's own emotions through selfawareness and recognising a feeling as it happens. • Absence of emotional intelligence: withdrawal from others; feeling anxious or depressed (including feeling the need to be perfect); having attention or thinking problems. Severe cases: lying; cheating; arguing a lot; being mean; demanding attention; being destructive; being stubborn and moody; and being quick tempered. • Self-control and compassion are the basic capacities people need to thrive. THE RELATION BETWEEN EMOTIONS AND MOTIVATION • 'Motivation' refers to an internal state that activates and gives direction to our thoughts, feelings and actions. • 'Motive' – a specific need or desire that arouses the organism and directs its behaviour towards the goal. • All motives are triggered by a stimulus. • Motivation and emotions are closely linked concepts for 3 reasons: 1) both motives and the arousal of emotions activate behaviour, 2) motives are often accompanied by emotions, 3) emotions typically have motivational properties of their own. HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM: IMPULSE CONDUCTION 1. PARTS OF A NEURON • Neuronsare not all the same, but there are parts that are similar. • Dendrites: surrounds soma. Receive messages from other neurons. • Nucleus: controls metabolic activities in cell. • Soma: cell body: send and receive messages (nerve impulses) to and from other neurons. Nerve impulses travel down axon. • Axon: myelinated axons conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated. • Vesicles: inside boutons. Filled with neurotransmitters. • Neuron types: ◦ Sensory/afferent: carry messages from environment, organs, etc. to spinal cord and brain. ◦ Motor/efferent: carry messages from spinal cord and brain to muscles and glands. • Nerve: bundle of axons in parts of body outside brain and spinal cord. • Nerve tract: bundle of axons in brain/spinal cord. • Stimuli: info from outside and inside body. Form of energy received by senses and converted to electrochemical energy. • Impulse conduction: the basic form of sending info in nervous system. 2. THE PROCESS OF IMPULSE CONDUCTION • Two main processes of impulse conduction: ◦ Electrical: nerve impulse begins in first segment of axon and travels down to terminals because of electrical events at cell membrane. ◦ Chemical: passage of nerve impulse from one axon to another. • The nerve impulse: ◦ Each neuron stores potential energy. ◦ Fluid inside and outside cells contains small chemical particles (ions). ◦ Outside the cell membrane there are more positive ions, inside are more negative. ◦ Outside cell membrane: lots of sodium ions that are positively charged, as well as some negative ions. ◦ Inside cell membrane: lots of large protein ions that cannot leave the cell (because cell membrane is not permeable to protein ions) and they are negative. ◦ Ionsmove around constantly in the fluid because ▪ Ions naturally move from where there is lots of them, to places where there are less. ▪ Opposite charges attract each other, while similars repel. ◦ Resting membrane potential: the condition of readiness in the neuron before an impulse can fire or be conducted. An electrical charge brought about by the difference between the + and – ions outside and inside the cells. If ions were distributed evenly inside and outside cell membrane, = no electrical charge and no potential. Resting membrane potential = neuron is ready to receive and conduct info (electrical impulses). ◦ Action potential: messages arriving from other neurons constantly alter the resting potential by causing fluctuations in the ration of positive to negative ions. Cell reaches a threshold/critical point if resting potential changes enough. Different neurons have different thresholds and the stimulus has to be intense enough to cross the threshold for each particular neuron to fire. When the electrical charge is strong enough to exceed the threshold, the resting membrane potential is changed into an action potential. The stimulus (electrical impulse) is conducted along the neuron axon, in other words goes into action. During an action potential the structure of the axon changes: tiny openings or channels in the cell membrane allow ions outside the cell membrane to move inside the cell (the inside of the cell becomes more positive than the outside). Channels first open near the soma and then they open down the length of the axon as the action potential sweeps along. ◦ Refractory period: movement of ions changes the electrical charge in the cell membrane so that immediately after an impulse has been conducted, the neuron is not ready to send another impulse until the resting potential has been restored. This period during which the neuron is not ready to fire is refractory period. Two types of refractory period: Absolute refractory period (even with intense stimulation, no impulse can be generated) and relative refractory period (an impulse can be generated, but only with very intense stimulus). Refractory period ensures that the impulse goes in one direction only. The part of the neuron that the impulse has come from is deactivated and cannot fire. RP also prevents the nervous system from over-stimulation by regulating the relation between stimulus intensity and impulse frequency. ◦ Action potential is an all-or-nothing event, because the cell provides the energy – the energy does not come from stimulus. Therefore the strength of the stimulus does not change the strength or speed of the impulse. ◦ Strength and speed: constant in a particular neuron, but can vary with nerve fibres of different sizes. Larger nerve fibre = stronger and faster nerve impulse. ◦ Frequency: although impulse conduction is an all-or-nothing event, intensity of stimulus does make a difference in terms of frequency at which impulses are conducted. If stimulus is very intense, there is shorter time space between the firing of each impulse = frequency increases. ◦ Effect of myelination: action potentials travel faster along axons that are myelinated than unmyelinated axons because myelin sheath insulates the axon, but there are gaps or nodes between the sheaths. In these nodes the ion channels open, so impulse jumps from node to node (saltatory conduction). 3. SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES • Conduction of nerve impulse in a neuron is primarily electrical, but communication between different neurons (in mammals) is chemical. • Synapse: Microscopically small gap between two neurons. • When an action potential reaches the tip of the axon terminals, chemicals are released into the synaptic cleft. • Synaptic cleft: gap between presynaptic membrane of one neuron and the postsynaptic membrane of another. • Neurotransmitters: chemicals than can alter activity in other neurons, and allow contact to take place across the synaptic cleft. • When a neuron fires, the action potential is conducted toward the axon terminals, causing the vesicles (with their neurotransmitters) to move closer and attach themselves to the presynaptic membrane. At the point where they attach, the membrane opens and the neurotransmitters pass into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters mix with fluid outside cells and combine with receptors in postsynaptic membrane. • Different neurons use different chemicals as their neurotransmitters but each neuron releases the same chemical from all branches of its axon. • Postsynaptic potentials: ◦ Some neurons release neurotransmitters than excite the next neuron, in other words make the next neuron more likely to produce an action potential. ◦ Postsynaptic potential: the action potential in the next neuron. ◦ Other neurons release neurotransmitter than inhibit the production of an action potential in the next neuron. ◦ After neurotransmitter excites/inhibits a receptor in the next neuron, several things can happen to a neurotransmitter: ▪ re-absorbed by the axon that released it (re-uptake) ▪ diffuse away ▪ become broken up by enzymes ▪ Bounce around for a while, then return to the postsynaptic receptor again. ◦ The longer the neurotransmitter stays in the synaptic cleft, the more likely it is to affect the other neuron. ◦ Neurons can receive hundreds/thousands of messages at once. ◦ Postsynaptic potential will only be generated if the amount of neurotransmitters discharged into synapse is large enough (in other words, if there are enough messages received at one time). ◦ Postsynaptic potential is not an all-or-nothing event but is a graded potential. ◦ Impulses become weaker the further they travel.