Final Exam Study Guide AP III bio 255.
Final Exam Study Guide AP III
Essay questions to know
• What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and
how they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents
▪ Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune
responses Adaptive immunity has both specificity and memory and is divided into 2
types
1 Cell-mediated
2 Antibody-mediated
In cell-mediated immunity:
▪ An antigen is recognized and bound
▪ A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells
▪ The antigen is
eliminated In antibody-mediated
immunity:
▪ An antigen is recognized and bound
▪ Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and differentiate into
a clone of effector cells that produce antibodies
▪ The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us against invasion of a wide
variety of pathogens and their toxins.
▪ We are born with this kind of immunity
▪ Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of
invaders. 1st: Skin and mucous membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
• Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
a. The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in
the body. It is found in the left hypochondriac region between
stomach and the diaphragm. It is composed of white pulp and red
pulp. Red pulp filters blood and gets rid of old or damaged
blood cells. White pulp consists of immune cells and helps
fight infection. The spleen acts as a blood filter, if it detects
bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it and the lymph nodes
, Final Exam Study Guide AP III bio 255.
create lymphocytes which act as defenders.
, Final Exam Study Guide AP III bio 255.
• What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration.
What are their functions and Location.
• 1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between
the atmosphere and the lungs that occurs when we inhale and exhale
• 2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli.
• 3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into
body cells and carbon dioxide from body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem that regulate
breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the pontine respiratory
center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the ventral respiratory group
(AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group (AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates
impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal
nerves. These impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation. When the
nerves are not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall, passive
exhalation. The VRG is only activated during forceful inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to
work. An important part of the VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in
the generation of the rhythm of breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls
rate of involuntary respiration; motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How
does loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues.
• Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in
blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
• The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment and the tissues is the
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried
both physically dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide
is carried physically dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as carbamino
compounds, and as bicarbonate.
• Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically combined to the
hemoglobin in the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is normally transported combined with
hemoglobin than is physically dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular
system could not supply sufficient oxygen to meet tissue demands.
Final Exam Study Guide AP III
Essay questions to know
• What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and
how they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents
▪ Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune
responses Adaptive immunity has both specificity and memory and is divided into 2
types
1 Cell-mediated
2 Antibody-mediated
In cell-mediated immunity:
▪ An antigen is recognized and bound
▪ A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells
▪ The antigen is
eliminated In antibody-mediated
immunity:
▪ An antigen is recognized and bound
▪ Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and differentiate into
a clone of effector cells that produce antibodies
▪ The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us against invasion of a wide
variety of pathogens and their toxins.
▪ We are born with this kind of immunity
▪ Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of
invaders. 1st: Skin and mucous membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
• Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
a. The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in
the body. It is found in the left hypochondriac region between
stomach and the diaphragm. It is composed of white pulp and red
pulp. Red pulp filters blood and gets rid of old or damaged
blood cells. White pulp consists of immune cells and helps
fight infection. The spleen acts as a blood filter, if it detects
bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it and the lymph nodes
, Final Exam Study Guide AP III bio 255.
create lymphocytes which act as defenders.
, Final Exam Study Guide AP III bio 255.
• What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration.
What are their functions and Location.
• 1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between
the atmosphere and the lungs that occurs when we inhale and exhale
• 2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli.
• 3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into
body cells and carbon dioxide from body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem that regulate
breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the pontine respiratory
center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the ventral respiratory group
(AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group (AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates
impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal
nerves. These impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation. When the
nerves are not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall, passive
exhalation. The VRG is only activated during forceful inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to
work. An important part of the VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in
the generation of the rhythm of breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls
rate of involuntary respiration; motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How
does loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues.
• Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in
blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
• The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment and the tissues is the
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried
both physically dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide
is carried physically dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as carbamino
compounds, and as bicarbonate.
• Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically combined to the
hemoglobin in the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is normally transported combined with
hemoglobin than is physically dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular
system could not supply sufficient oxygen to meet tissue demands.
