N6030 Study Guide Exam 1
Spring 2019
Pathophysiology Terms
Names of different types of disease etiology/causation
Congenital: present from birth
Idiopathic: arises spontaneously, cause unknown, most likely genetic
Iatrogenic: caused by treatment
Acquired: produces a phenotype but not coded in DNA, not passed to offspring
Nosocomial: originating in the hospital
Etiology: cause or set of causes of a disease of condition
Morbidity: the condition of being diseased (rate of disease)
Epidemiology: study of disease
Prevalence: how common a disease is (how many)
Incidence: occurrence, rate or frequency of a disease (how often)
Sensitivity and specificity of a test: what do each mean? Sensitivity is the ability of
a test to correctly identify those with the disease (true positive). Specificity is the ability
to correctly identify those without the disease (true negative)
Negative and positive predictive value: what does it mean? How do you interpret
a test with high or low predictive value? Positive predictive value is the probability
that subjects with a positive screening test truly have the disease. Negative predictive
value is the probability that subjects with a negative screening test truly don’t have the
disease
What are the different levels of prevention?
Primary: measures to prevent the onset of illness before disease begins (immunization)
Secondary: measures that lead to the early diagnosis and prompt treatment of a
disease to prevent severe issues
Tertiary: preventive measures aimed at rehabilitation following significant illness
Cell Biology
Metabolism: anaerobic and aerobic
How do these differ?
Anaerobic – glycolytic pathway which occurs in cytoplasm
Aerobic – occurs in mitochondria, anaerobic path is prelude
What are the advantages of aerobic metabolism?
Generates more ATP (36). A major advantage of aerobic respiration is the
amount of energy it releases. Without oxygen, organisms can split glucose into just two
molecules of pyruvate. This releases only enough energy to make two ATP molecules.
Where do the following fit (i.e. part of anaerobic or aerobic process):
glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation
• Energy liberated from glucose
• One molecule of glucose yields 2 ATP
• Important during hypoxia
• When O2 is present, pyruvic acid moves into mitochondria & enters citric acid
cycle
, • Aerobic Metabolism & the Citric Acid Cycle
• Supplies most of body energy
• Pyruvic acid combines with acetyl-CoA
• H+ & carbon molecules combine with O2 → CO2 & H2O as energy released
• Electron transport chain
• Produces 36 molecules of ATP
What happens if there is no oxygen available to the cell regarding cellular
metabolism? Hypoxia, cells would undergo anaerobic metabolism, but not as
much energy is generated
Know the major organelles in cytoplasm: what does each do?
Nucleus: contains DNA necessary for protein synthesis and survival. Synthesizes three
types of RNA: Messenger, Ribosomal, Transfer
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Ribosomes: site for protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough, Smooth => membrane factory that
synthesizes and transports lipid and protein of other organelles
Golgi Apparatus: packages proteins, enzymes, hormones
Lysosomes: breaks down cell parts and forging substances
Peroxisomes: contain oxidative enzymes to detoxify compounds and fatty acids
Proteasomes: quality control mechanism
Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, transforms compounds to energy
Cytoskeleton: Maintains cells shape
Cell Membrane: defines the intracellular space, lipid bilayer
Cell membrane/phospholipid bi-layer: what is the structure?
Lipid bilayer is made of hydrophilic heads and fatty hydrophobic tails. Lipid soluble
makes molecules easy to diffuse. Proteins extend across the bilayer.
Movement of substances across cell membranes
Active versus passive transport
Active transport requires ATP to drive flow uphill, while passive transport involves
movement of small uncharged particles and water through pores in lipid bilayer. Move
from high concentration to low concentration gradient. Driven by osmosis, hydrostatic
pressure and diffusion.
Simple diffusion versus facilitated diffusion
Simple diffusion does not require energy from ATP. Facilitated diffusion may or may
not require energy from ATP. In simple diffusion, the molecules can pass only in the
direction of concentration gradient. In facilitated diffusion, the molecules can pass both
in direction and opposite of the concentration gradient.
What are characteristics of substances that can move across membrane by
simple diffusion?
Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it
easily passes through a cell membrane. Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell
, respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell. Small uncharged lipid
molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.
What uses ion channels?
The three main groups of ion channels are 1) the voltage-gated channels such as the
sodium and potassium channels of the nerve axons and nerve terminals, 2)
the extracellular ligand-activated channels which includes channels such as GABA and
glycine receptor channels, most of which are regulated by ligands that are
"neurotransmitters". These channels are often named according to the ligand they bind
to. 3) Intracellular ligand-gated ion channels. These include CFTR and some other ABC
family members as well as ion channels involved in sense perception. These are often
activated indirectly by GCPRs. Other common intracellular ligands which activate these
kinds of channels include calcium ions, ATP, cyclic AMP and GMP as well as
phosphadidyl inositol (PI).
Osmosis
Movement of water
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Endocytosis: taking in particles from outside of the cell, plasma membrane folds
Exocytosis: release of particles from intracellular vesicles at cell surface
What happens if you are not able to make enough ATP for a cell?
Without this energy, the cell could not perform active transport, or the electron transport
chain. The cell cannot survive without ATP. ATP is the energy source in cells so if
our bodies did not produce ATP then the processes of active transport, cellular
respiration and so on would stop working.
How do cells communicate (i.e. what is paracrine, autocrine, hormonal/endocrine
etc.)?
Paracrine signaling: cells secrete local chemical mediators that are quickly absorbed,
destroyed or immobilized, usually involves different cell types
Autocrine: cells producing signals that they also respond to, exampled by cancer using
it as a signal for survival and proliferation
Hormonal: specialized endocrine cells that secrete chemicals called hormones (ex
thyroid stimulating hormone). Hormones are released by one set of cells and travel
through tissue and bloodstream to produce a response in other cells
Neurohormonal: (ex. Angiotensin ii) released into blood by neurosecretory neurons
What is a resting membrane potential and action potential? How is an action
potential generated?
The difference in electrical or voltage charge between higher negative polarization
inside the cell and outside of it. Is usually -70 to -85 millivolts. Difference in voltage is
the result of the differences in the ionic composition of ICF and ECF, Sodium ions have
greater concentration in the ECF while potassium is greater in ICF. Action potential
Spring 2019
Pathophysiology Terms
Names of different types of disease etiology/causation
Congenital: present from birth
Idiopathic: arises spontaneously, cause unknown, most likely genetic
Iatrogenic: caused by treatment
Acquired: produces a phenotype but not coded in DNA, not passed to offspring
Nosocomial: originating in the hospital
Etiology: cause or set of causes of a disease of condition
Morbidity: the condition of being diseased (rate of disease)
Epidemiology: study of disease
Prevalence: how common a disease is (how many)
Incidence: occurrence, rate or frequency of a disease (how often)
Sensitivity and specificity of a test: what do each mean? Sensitivity is the ability of
a test to correctly identify those with the disease (true positive). Specificity is the ability
to correctly identify those without the disease (true negative)
Negative and positive predictive value: what does it mean? How do you interpret
a test with high or low predictive value? Positive predictive value is the probability
that subjects with a positive screening test truly have the disease. Negative predictive
value is the probability that subjects with a negative screening test truly don’t have the
disease
What are the different levels of prevention?
Primary: measures to prevent the onset of illness before disease begins (immunization)
Secondary: measures that lead to the early diagnosis and prompt treatment of a
disease to prevent severe issues
Tertiary: preventive measures aimed at rehabilitation following significant illness
Cell Biology
Metabolism: anaerobic and aerobic
How do these differ?
Anaerobic – glycolytic pathway which occurs in cytoplasm
Aerobic – occurs in mitochondria, anaerobic path is prelude
What are the advantages of aerobic metabolism?
Generates more ATP (36). A major advantage of aerobic respiration is the
amount of energy it releases. Without oxygen, organisms can split glucose into just two
molecules of pyruvate. This releases only enough energy to make two ATP molecules.
Where do the following fit (i.e. part of anaerobic or aerobic process):
glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation
• Energy liberated from glucose
• One molecule of glucose yields 2 ATP
• Important during hypoxia
• When O2 is present, pyruvic acid moves into mitochondria & enters citric acid
cycle
, • Aerobic Metabolism & the Citric Acid Cycle
• Supplies most of body energy
• Pyruvic acid combines with acetyl-CoA
• H+ & carbon molecules combine with O2 → CO2 & H2O as energy released
• Electron transport chain
• Produces 36 molecules of ATP
What happens if there is no oxygen available to the cell regarding cellular
metabolism? Hypoxia, cells would undergo anaerobic metabolism, but not as
much energy is generated
Know the major organelles in cytoplasm: what does each do?
Nucleus: contains DNA necessary for protein synthesis and survival. Synthesizes three
types of RNA: Messenger, Ribosomal, Transfer
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Ribosomes: site for protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough, Smooth => membrane factory that
synthesizes and transports lipid and protein of other organelles
Golgi Apparatus: packages proteins, enzymes, hormones
Lysosomes: breaks down cell parts and forging substances
Peroxisomes: contain oxidative enzymes to detoxify compounds and fatty acids
Proteasomes: quality control mechanism
Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, transforms compounds to energy
Cytoskeleton: Maintains cells shape
Cell Membrane: defines the intracellular space, lipid bilayer
Cell membrane/phospholipid bi-layer: what is the structure?
Lipid bilayer is made of hydrophilic heads and fatty hydrophobic tails. Lipid soluble
makes molecules easy to diffuse. Proteins extend across the bilayer.
Movement of substances across cell membranes
Active versus passive transport
Active transport requires ATP to drive flow uphill, while passive transport involves
movement of small uncharged particles and water through pores in lipid bilayer. Move
from high concentration to low concentration gradient. Driven by osmosis, hydrostatic
pressure and diffusion.
Simple diffusion versus facilitated diffusion
Simple diffusion does not require energy from ATP. Facilitated diffusion may or may
not require energy from ATP. In simple diffusion, the molecules can pass only in the
direction of concentration gradient. In facilitated diffusion, the molecules can pass both
in direction and opposite of the concentration gradient.
What are characteristics of substances that can move across membrane by
simple diffusion?
Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it
easily passes through a cell membrane. Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell
, respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell. Small uncharged lipid
molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.
What uses ion channels?
The three main groups of ion channels are 1) the voltage-gated channels such as the
sodium and potassium channels of the nerve axons and nerve terminals, 2)
the extracellular ligand-activated channels which includes channels such as GABA and
glycine receptor channels, most of which are regulated by ligands that are
"neurotransmitters". These channels are often named according to the ligand they bind
to. 3) Intracellular ligand-gated ion channels. These include CFTR and some other ABC
family members as well as ion channels involved in sense perception. These are often
activated indirectly by GCPRs. Other common intracellular ligands which activate these
kinds of channels include calcium ions, ATP, cyclic AMP and GMP as well as
phosphadidyl inositol (PI).
Osmosis
Movement of water
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Endocytosis: taking in particles from outside of the cell, plasma membrane folds
Exocytosis: release of particles from intracellular vesicles at cell surface
What happens if you are not able to make enough ATP for a cell?
Without this energy, the cell could not perform active transport, or the electron transport
chain. The cell cannot survive without ATP. ATP is the energy source in cells so if
our bodies did not produce ATP then the processes of active transport, cellular
respiration and so on would stop working.
How do cells communicate (i.e. what is paracrine, autocrine, hormonal/endocrine
etc.)?
Paracrine signaling: cells secrete local chemical mediators that are quickly absorbed,
destroyed or immobilized, usually involves different cell types
Autocrine: cells producing signals that they also respond to, exampled by cancer using
it as a signal for survival and proliferation
Hormonal: specialized endocrine cells that secrete chemicals called hormones (ex
thyroid stimulating hormone). Hormones are released by one set of cells and travel
through tissue and bloodstream to produce a response in other cells
Neurohormonal: (ex. Angiotensin ii) released into blood by neurosecretory neurons
What is a resting membrane potential and action potential? How is an action
potential generated?
The difference in electrical or voltage charge between higher negative polarization
inside the cell and outside of it. Is usually -70 to -85 millivolts. Difference in voltage is
the result of the differences in the ionic composition of ICF and ECF, Sodium ions have
greater concentration in the ECF while potassium is greater in ICF. Action potential
