,TABLE OF CONTENT
1 Organisation of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Cells and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Cells and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Cell Cycle (Mitosis and Protein Synthesis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Measurement, Errors, Data and Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4 Chemistry for Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1 Atoms and Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3 Diffusion and Osmosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Tonicity, Moles and Osmoles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5 Acids, Bases and Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.6 Organic Chemistry and Macromolecules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5 Integument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7 Skeleton and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8 Muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9 Gastrointestinal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10 Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11 Renal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12 Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.1 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.2 Heart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12.3 Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
12.4 Pressure: The Physics of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
12.5 Pressure Applied to the Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
12.6 Blood Pressure and Its Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
,xv
, xvi Contents
13 Respiratory System ....................................................................................369
13.1 Anatomy and Physiology ..................................................................369
13.2 Pressure Applied to the Respiratory System .....................................393
14 Nervous System ..........................................................................................405
14.1 Cells and Action Potential.................................................................405
14.2 Brain and Spinal Cord Anatomy .......................................................420
14.3 Autonomic Nervous System, Neurotransmitters, and Reflexes ........440
14.4 Special Senses (Eye and Ear) ............................................................454
14.4.1 Eye ........................................................................................454
14.4.2 Ear .........................................................................................465
15 Reproductive System .................................................................................475
16 Waves, Light Waves, Sound Waves and Ultrasound
(The Physics of) ..........................................................................................493
16.1 Waves................................................................................................493
16.2 Light Waves ......................................................................................498
16.3 Sound ................................................................................................502
16.4 Ultrasound .........................................................................................506
17 Ionising Radiation ......................................................................................511
17.1 Medical Imaging with X-Radiation ..................................................511
17.2 Radioactivity, Radiotherapy, Nuclear Medicine
and Radiation Safety .........................................................................519
18 Electricity ....................................................................................................539
19 Biomechanics ..............................................................................................551
20 Body Temperature, Energy and Heat Loss..............................................567
21 Essay Topics for a Written Assignment Assessment
in Anatomy and Physiology .......................................................................585
1 Organisation of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Cells and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Cells and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Cell Cycle (Mitosis and Protein Synthesis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Measurement, Errors, Data and Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4 Chemistry for Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1 Atoms and Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3 Diffusion and Osmosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Tonicity, Moles and Osmoles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5 Acids, Bases and Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.6 Organic Chemistry and Macromolecules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5 Integument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7 Skeleton and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8 Muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9 Gastrointestinal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10 Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11 Renal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12 Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.1 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.2 Heart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12.3 Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
12.4 Pressure: The Physics of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
12.5 Pressure Applied to the Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
12.6 Blood Pressure and Its Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
,xv
, xvi Contents
13 Respiratory System ....................................................................................369
13.1 Anatomy and Physiology ..................................................................369
13.2 Pressure Applied to the Respiratory System .....................................393
14 Nervous System ..........................................................................................405
14.1 Cells and Action Potential.................................................................405
14.2 Brain and Spinal Cord Anatomy .......................................................420
14.3 Autonomic Nervous System, Neurotransmitters, and Reflexes ........440
14.4 Special Senses (Eye and Ear) ............................................................454
14.4.1 Eye ........................................................................................454
14.4.2 Ear .........................................................................................465
15 Reproductive System .................................................................................475
16 Waves, Light Waves, Sound Waves and Ultrasound
(The Physics of) ..........................................................................................493
16.1 Waves................................................................................................493
16.2 Light Waves ......................................................................................498
16.3 Sound ................................................................................................502
16.4 Ultrasound .........................................................................................506
17 Ionising Radiation ......................................................................................511
17.1 Medical Imaging with X-Radiation ..................................................511
17.2 Radioactivity, Radiotherapy, Nuclear Medicine
and Radiation Safety .........................................................................519
18 Electricity ....................................................................................................539
19 Biomechanics ..............................................................................................551
20 Body Temperature, Energy and Heat Loss..............................................567
21 Essay Topics for a Written Assignment Assessment
in Anatomy and Physiology .......................................................................585
