BIOS 251 A&P 1 Final Study Guide
*Spend extra time on the concepts that are in bold*
Don’t forget to study the list of bones and bone features on the Lab Practicum Study Guide!
Ch. 1
Homeostasis
• Condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment, and maintained by regulatory processes.
• Survival of our body cells is dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their
surrounding fluid
• Internal conditions are in a dynamic equilibrium; set point (like thermostat in house)
• Essential for maintenance of life; death and disease.
Components of the homeostatic control loop (feedback loops)
• Negative Feedback: works to oppose change and brings condition back to a set point
o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (blood pressure) > Receptors (baroreceptors in certain blood vessels) >
Control Center (brain) > Effectors (heart & blood vessels) > Response (decrease in HR)
• Positive Feedback: works to enhance change and brings condition further away from a set point (ex. Birth)
o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (stretching of cervix) > Receptors (stretching of cells in cervix) > Control
Center (brain) > Effectors (muscles in wall of uterus) > Response (baby’s body stretches the cervix more)
Ch. 2
Acids and bases
• Acids: ionize into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more anions (negative ions)
• Bases: dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations (positive ions) and are proton
acceptors.
pH scale
• Acidity is lower, alkalinity is higher. Scale is 0-14
• 7 is neutral
• Gastric fluid, hydrochloric acid is 0 and 1
• Over cleaner, sodium hydroxide is 13 and 14
• Blood is just over 7
Ch. 3
Tonicity of solutions and their effect on body cells (hypo-, iso-, hypertonic)
• Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution influences the shape of body cells.
• Isotonic solution = RBC maintain normal shape
• Hypotonic solution = RBC hemolyze
• Hypertonic solution = RBC crenate
1
,Osmosis
• Net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an
area of low water concentration.
Factors that influence the rate of diffusion across the cell membrane
• steepness of the concentration gradient
• temperature
• mass of diffusing substance
• surface area
• diffusion distance
Where DNA may be found in the cell
• Nucleus
• Sometimes in the mitochondria
Where DNA replication occurs in the cell
• Nucleus
Stages of the cell cycle and events at each stage
• Interphase (longest phase)
o G1
§ Cell is metabolically active, duplicating organelles, and cytosolic components except for DNA. 8-10
hours.
o S
§ DNA replicated. 8 hours
o G2. 4-6 hours.
§ Cell growth continues and the cell completes its preparation for cell division
• Mitosis – nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes, one set into each of two separate nuclei
o PMAT
Stages of mitosis and events at each stage
• Prophase: chromatin condenses and shortens into chromosomes
• Metaphase: centromeres line up at the exact center of mitotic spindle, aka metaphase plate or equatorial plane
region
• Anaphase: the splitting and separation of centromeres and the movement of the two sister chromatids of each pair
toward opposite poles of the cell
• Telophase: begins as soon as chromatid movement stops. Identical sets of chromosomes at opposite poles of the
cell uncoil and revert to their threadlike chromatin form, microtubules disappear or change form, a new nuclear
envelope forms, new nucleoli appear, and the new mitotic spindle eventually breaks.
Ch. 4
2
,Modes of exocrine gland secretions (mero-, apo- and holocrine)
• Merocrine: form secretory products and discharge it by exocytosis
• Apocrine: secretary product at apical surface of secreting cell. Portion pinches off from the rest of the cell to form
secretion within remaining part of cell repairing itself and repeating the process.
• Holocrine: secretory product in the cytosol, cell dies, cell replaced with new one.
4 main types of tissues in the body and their subtypes
• Epithelial tissue: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, forms glands.
o Simple Squamous
o Simple Cuboidal
o Simple Columnar
o Pseudostratified
o Stratified Squamous
o Stratified Cuboidal
o Stratified Columnar
o Transitional
• Connective tissue: protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserved as
fat, and provides immunity.
o Loose connective tissue
o Areolar Connective Tissue
o Adipose Connective Tissue
o Reticular Connective Tissue
o Dense Regular Connective Tissue
o Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
o Elastic Connective Tissue
o Bone
o Cartilage
§ Hyaline Cartilage
§ Fibrocartilage
§ Elastic Cartilage
• Muscle tissue: responsible for movement and generation of force, and heat production.
o Skeletal Muscle
o Cardiac Muscle
o Smooth Muscle
• Nervous tissue: initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulse) that help coordinate body activities
o Neurons
o Neuroglia
Basic characteristics of each of the tissues (ECM, cells), their subtypes and locations in the body
• Epithelial tissue: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, forms glands.
o Simple Squamous: single, flat layer of cells. Diffusion and filtration. Found in lungs and kidneys.
o Simple Cuboidal: single, cube like layer of cells. Secretion and absorption
o Simple Columnar: single, rectangular shape layer of cells
o Pseudostratified: one layer looks like multiple. Sweep away mucous.
3
, o Stratified Squamous: multiple, flat cells. Skin
o Stratified Cuboidal: multiple, cube layers. Protective.
o Stratified Columnar: multiple, columns. Protection, Secretion.
o Transitional: several layers that stretch. Bladder and ureters.
• Connective tissue: protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserved as
fat, and provides immunity.
o Loose connective tissue: all 3 fibers, several types of cells, and semifluid ground substance.
o Areolar Connective Tissue: aids passage of nutrients from the blood vessels of the connective tissue into
adjacent cells and tissues.
o Adipose Connective Tissue: consists of adipocytes specialized for storage of triglycerides. Reduces heat loss,
energy storage, supports, protects.
o Reticular Connective Tissue: fine interlacing reticular fibers and reticular cells. Stroma of certain cells, helps
bind together the cells of smooth muscle.
o Dense Regular Connective Tissue: consists of bundles of collagen fibers in a regular and orderly, parallel
arrangement that confers great strength.
o Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: contains collagen fibers that are irregularly arranged and found in parts
of the body where tensions are exerted in various directions.
o Elastic Connective Tissue: elastic fibers and fibroblasts, quite strong, recoil back to its original shape. Found
in lung tissue and elastic arteries.
o Bone: consists of a matrix containing mineral salts and collagenous fibers and cells called osteocytes.
o Cartilage: dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers.
§ Hyaline Cartilage: most abundant but weakest type. Flexible and supportive at joints, reduces
friction and absorbs shock.
§ Fibrocartilage: bundles of collagen fibers. Strength and rigidity, strongest of 3 types.
§ Elastic Cartilage: strength and elasticity, maintains shape of certain organs.
• Muscle tissue: responsible for movement and generation of force, and heat production.
o Skeletal Muscle: attached to bones, striated, voluntary
o Cardiac Muscle: forms heart wall, striated, involuntary
o Smooth Muscle: found in hollow internal structures (blood vessels and viscera,) nonstriated, involuntary
• Nervous tissue: initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulse) that help coordinate body activities
o Neurons: consist of body, dendrites, axons. Sensitive to stimuli, convert stimuli into nerve impulses, and
conduct nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.
o Neuroglia: protect and support neurons and often sites of tumors of the nervous system
Ch. 5
Functions of the skin
• Physcial barriers to microorganisms, chemical hazards, mechanical abrasion
• Prevents dehydration
• Protects against excess UV exposure (melanin function)
• Thermoregulation
• Excretion of sweat, oil
• Sensation of touch, pressure, pain, temp.
• Vitamin D3 production
4
*Spend extra time on the concepts that are in bold*
Don’t forget to study the list of bones and bone features on the Lab Practicum Study Guide!
Ch. 1
Homeostasis
• Condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment, and maintained by regulatory processes.
• Survival of our body cells is dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their
surrounding fluid
• Internal conditions are in a dynamic equilibrium; set point (like thermostat in house)
• Essential for maintenance of life; death and disease.
Components of the homeostatic control loop (feedback loops)
• Negative Feedback: works to oppose change and brings condition back to a set point
o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (blood pressure) > Receptors (baroreceptors in certain blood vessels) >
Control Center (brain) > Effectors (heart & blood vessels) > Response (decrease in HR)
• Positive Feedback: works to enhance change and brings condition further away from a set point (ex. Birth)
o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (stretching of cervix) > Receptors (stretching of cells in cervix) > Control
Center (brain) > Effectors (muscles in wall of uterus) > Response (baby’s body stretches the cervix more)
Ch. 2
Acids and bases
• Acids: ionize into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more anions (negative ions)
• Bases: dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations (positive ions) and are proton
acceptors.
pH scale
• Acidity is lower, alkalinity is higher. Scale is 0-14
• 7 is neutral
• Gastric fluid, hydrochloric acid is 0 and 1
• Over cleaner, sodium hydroxide is 13 and 14
• Blood is just over 7
Ch. 3
Tonicity of solutions and their effect on body cells (hypo-, iso-, hypertonic)
• Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution influences the shape of body cells.
• Isotonic solution = RBC maintain normal shape
• Hypotonic solution = RBC hemolyze
• Hypertonic solution = RBC crenate
1
,Osmosis
• Net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an
area of low water concentration.
Factors that influence the rate of diffusion across the cell membrane
• steepness of the concentration gradient
• temperature
• mass of diffusing substance
• surface area
• diffusion distance
Where DNA may be found in the cell
• Nucleus
• Sometimes in the mitochondria
Where DNA replication occurs in the cell
• Nucleus
Stages of the cell cycle and events at each stage
• Interphase (longest phase)
o G1
§ Cell is metabolically active, duplicating organelles, and cytosolic components except for DNA. 8-10
hours.
o S
§ DNA replicated. 8 hours
o G2. 4-6 hours.
§ Cell growth continues and the cell completes its preparation for cell division
• Mitosis – nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes, one set into each of two separate nuclei
o PMAT
Stages of mitosis and events at each stage
• Prophase: chromatin condenses and shortens into chromosomes
• Metaphase: centromeres line up at the exact center of mitotic spindle, aka metaphase plate or equatorial plane
region
• Anaphase: the splitting and separation of centromeres and the movement of the two sister chromatids of each pair
toward opposite poles of the cell
• Telophase: begins as soon as chromatid movement stops. Identical sets of chromosomes at opposite poles of the
cell uncoil and revert to their threadlike chromatin form, microtubules disappear or change form, a new nuclear
envelope forms, new nucleoli appear, and the new mitotic spindle eventually breaks.
Ch. 4
2
,Modes of exocrine gland secretions (mero-, apo- and holocrine)
• Merocrine: form secretory products and discharge it by exocytosis
• Apocrine: secretary product at apical surface of secreting cell. Portion pinches off from the rest of the cell to form
secretion within remaining part of cell repairing itself and repeating the process.
• Holocrine: secretory product in the cytosol, cell dies, cell replaced with new one.
4 main types of tissues in the body and their subtypes
• Epithelial tissue: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, forms glands.
o Simple Squamous
o Simple Cuboidal
o Simple Columnar
o Pseudostratified
o Stratified Squamous
o Stratified Cuboidal
o Stratified Columnar
o Transitional
• Connective tissue: protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserved as
fat, and provides immunity.
o Loose connective tissue
o Areolar Connective Tissue
o Adipose Connective Tissue
o Reticular Connective Tissue
o Dense Regular Connective Tissue
o Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
o Elastic Connective Tissue
o Bone
o Cartilage
§ Hyaline Cartilage
§ Fibrocartilage
§ Elastic Cartilage
• Muscle tissue: responsible for movement and generation of force, and heat production.
o Skeletal Muscle
o Cardiac Muscle
o Smooth Muscle
• Nervous tissue: initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulse) that help coordinate body activities
o Neurons
o Neuroglia
Basic characteristics of each of the tissues (ECM, cells), their subtypes and locations in the body
• Epithelial tissue: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, forms glands.
o Simple Squamous: single, flat layer of cells. Diffusion and filtration. Found in lungs and kidneys.
o Simple Cuboidal: single, cube like layer of cells. Secretion and absorption
o Simple Columnar: single, rectangular shape layer of cells
o Pseudostratified: one layer looks like multiple. Sweep away mucous.
3
, o Stratified Squamous: multiple, flat cells. Skin
o Stratified Cuboidal: multiple, cube layers. Protective.
o Stratified Columnar: multiple, columns. Protection, Secretion.
o Transitional: several layers that stretch. Bladder and ureters.
• Connective tissue: protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserved as
fat, and provides immunity.
o Loose connective tissue: all 3 fibers, several types of cells, and semifluid ground substance.
o Areolar Connective Tissue: aids passage of nutrients from the blood vessels of the connective tissue into
adjacent cells and tissues.
o Adipose Connective Tissue: consists of adipocytes specialized for storage of triglycerides. Reduces heat loss,
energy storage, supports, protects.
o Reticular Connective Tissue: fine interlacing reticular fibers and reticular cells. Stroma of certain cells, helps
bind together the cells of smooth muscle.
o Dense Regular Connective Tissue: consists of bundles of collagen fibers in a regular and orderly, parallel
arrangement that confers great strength.
o Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: contains collagen fibers that are irregularly arranged and found in parts
of the body where tensions are exerted in various directions.
o Elastic Connective Tissue: elastic fibers and fibroblasts, quite strong, recoil back to its original shape. Found
in lung tissue and elastic arteries.
o Bone: consists of a matrix containing mineral salts and collagenous fibers and cells called osteocytes.
o Cartilage: dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers.
§ Hyaline Cartilage: most abundant but weakest type. Flexible and supportive at joints, reduces
friction and absorbs shock.
§ Fibrocartilage: bundles of collagen fibers. Strength and rigidity, strongest of 3 types.
§ Elastic Cartilage: strength and elasticity, maintains shape of certain organs.
• Muscle tissue: responsible for movement and generation of force, and heat production.
o Skeletal Muscle: attached to bones, striated, voluntary
o Cardiac Muscle: forms heart wall, striated, involuntary
o Smooth Muscle: found in hollow internal structures (blood vessels and viscera,) nonstriated, involuntary
• Nervous tissue: initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulse) that help coordinate body activities
o Neurons: consist of body, dendrites, axons. Sensitive to stimuli, convert stimuli into nerve impulses, and
conduct nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.
o Neuroglia: protect and support neurons and often sites of tumors of the nervous system
Ch. 5
Functions of the skin
• Physcial barriers to microorganisms, chemical hazards, mechanical abrasion
• Prevents dehydration
• Protects against excess UV exposure (melanin function)
• Thermoregulation
• Excretion of sweat, oil
• Sensation of touch, pressure, pain, temp.
• Vitamin D3 production
4
