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BIOS 255 A&P 3 FINAL/Bios 255 Final exam review

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Bios 255 Final exam review Be familiar with left and right sided heart failure and what the consequences are (remember the case study that we did in lecture and lab?) (698) Left side: One cause of mitral insufficiency, in which there is backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium, is mitral valve prolapse (MVP). In MVP one or both cusps of the mitral valve protrude into the left atrium during ventricular contraction. Mitral valve prolapse is one of the most common valvular disorders, affecting as much as 30% of the population. It is more prevalent in women than in men, and does not always pose a serious threat. The left side of the heart receives blood rich in oxygen from the lungs and pumps it to the remainder of the body. As the ability to pump blood forward from the left side of the heart is decreased, the remainder of the body does not receive enough oxygen especially when exercising. This results in fatigue. In addition, the pressure in the veins of the lung increases, which may cause fluid accumulation in the lung. This results in shortness of breath and pulmonary edema. Right side: In aortic stenosis the aortic valve is narrowed, and in aortic insufficiency there is backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle. In right-sided heart failure, the right ventricle loses its pumping function, and blood may back up into other areas of the body, producing congestion. Congestion affects the liver, the gastrointestinal tract, and the limbs. In addition, the right ventricle may be unable to pump blood efficiently to the lungs and to the left ventricle. Causes of right-sided heart failure include left-sided heart failure and lung diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Other causes include congenital heart disease, clots in pulmonary arteries, pulmonary hypertension, and heart valve disease. Know the different types of immunity – active vs passive, natural vs artificial. First, let us define the following terms and then we can put them together. The term active generally means that your body is producing antibodies by exposure. Passive is a term where the antibodies are being transferred to you, i.e. breast milk IgA to infant. Natural terms the introduction of the antigen via exposure. Artificial is the introduction of antigens/antibodies via an altered state of the microbe/ antibody. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity- Following exposure to a microbe, antigen recognition by B cells and T cells and costimulation lead to formation of antibody-secreting plasma cells, cytotoxic T cells, and B and T memory cells. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity- IgG antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus across placenta, or IgA antibodies are transferred from mother to baby in milk during breastfeeding. Artificially Acquired Active Immunity- Antigens introduced during vaccination stimulate cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune responses, leading to production of memory cells. Antigens are pretreated to be immunogenic but not pathogenic (they will trigger an immune response but not cause significant illness.) Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity- Intravenous injection of immunoglobulins. *****Know the neural mechanisms of respiratory control including the DRG and PRG. (872) Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem that regulate breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the pontine respiratory center. Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the ventral respiratory group (AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group (AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal nerves. These impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation. When the nerves are not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall, passive exhalation. The VRG is only activated during forceful inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to work. An important part of the VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in the generation of the rhythm of breathing (Pacemaker cells) . PRG (Pontine Respiratory Group)- A collection of neurons in the pons that transmits nerve impulses to the dorsal respiratory group, and may modify the basic rhythm of breathing. (AKA pneumotaxic area) The PRG may play a role in both inhalation and exhalation by modifying the basic rhythm of breathing generated by the VRG, as when exercising, speaking, or sleeping. Know the process of inhalation and exhalation (the steps involved) (FIG. 24.13) During

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Bios I255 IFinal Iexam Ireview

Be Ifamiliar Iwith Ileft Iand Iright Isided Iheart Ifailure Iand Iwhat Ithe Iconsequences Iare I(remember Ithe Icase
Istudy I that I we I did I in I lecture I and I lab?)

(698) ILeft I side: IOne Icause Iof Imitral Iinsufficiency, Iin Iwhich Ithere Iis Ibackflow Iof Iblood Ifrom Ithe Ileft
I ventricle Iinto Ithe Ileft Iatrium, Iis I mitral Ivalve I prolapse I(MVP). IIn IMVP Ione Ior Iboth Icusps Iof Ithe Imitral Ivalve

Iprotrude I into I the I left I atrium I during Iventricular Icontraction. IMitral I valve I prolapse I is I one I of I the I most

I common I valvular I disorders, I affecting I as I much I as I30% I of I the I population. I It I is Imore I prevalent I in I women

I than I in Imen, Iand I does I not I always I pose Ia I serious I threat. I The I left I side I of I the I heart Ireceives I blood I rich I in

Ioxygen I from I the I lungs Iand I pumps I it I to I the I remainder I of I the I body. I As I the Iability I to I pump I blood I forward

I from I the I left I side I of I the I heart I is I decreased, I the I remainder I of I the I body I does I not I receive I enough I oxygen

I especially I when I exercising. I This I results I in I fatigue. I In I addition, I the I pressure I in I the Iveins I of I the I lung

I increases, Iwhich Imay I cause I fluid Iaccumulation I in I the I lung. I This I results I in I shortness I of

breath Iand Ipulmonary Iedema.
Right Iside: IIn Iaortic Istenosis Ithe Iaortic Ivalve Iis Inarrowed, Iand Iin Iaortic Iinsufficiency Ithere Iis Ibackflow Iof
Iblood I from I the Iaorta I into I the I left Iventricle.

In Iright-sided Iheart Ifailure, Ithe Iright Iventricle Iloses Iits Ipumping Ifunction, Iand Iblood Imay Iback Iup Iinto
I other Iareas Iof Ithe Ibody, Iproducing Icongestion. ICongestion Iaffects Ithe Iliver, Ithe Igastrointestinal Itract, Iand

Ithe Ilimbs. IIn I addition, Ithe Iright I ventricle Imay I be Iunable Ito Ipump Iblood Iefficiently I to Ithe I lungs Iand Ito Ithe

I left I ventricle.

Causes Iof Iright-sided Iheart Ifailure Iinclude Ileft-sided Iheart Ifailure IandIlung Idiseases Isuch Ias Ichronic
Ibronchitis I and I emphysema. IOther I causes I include I congenital I heart I disease, I clots I in I pulmonary

I arteries, I pulmonary I hypertension, Iand I heart I valve I disease.

Know Ithe Idifferent Itypes Iof Iimmunity I– Iactive Ivs Ipassive, Inatural Ivs Iartificial.

First, Ilet Ius Idefine Ithe Ifollowing Iterms Iand Ithen Iwe Ican Iput Ithem Itogether. IThe Iterm Iactive Igenerally
I means I that I your I body I is I producing Iantibodies I by I exposure. I Passive I is Ia I term I where I the I antibodies I are

I being Itransferred Ito Iyou, Ii.e. Ibreast Imilk IIgA Ito Iinfant. I Natural Iterms Ithe Iintroduction Iof Ithe Iantigen Ivia

Iexposure. I Artificial I is I the I introduction I of Iantigens/antibodies I via I an I altered I state I of I the I microbe/

I antibody.

Naturally IAcquired IActive IImmunity- I Following Iexposure Ito Ia Imicrobe, Iantigen Irecognition Iby IB Icells IandIT
I cells I and I costimulation I lead I to I formation I of Iantibody-secreting I plasma I cells, I cytotoxic I T I cells, Iand I B Iand

I T Imemory I cells.

Naturally IAcquiredIPassive IImmunity- I IgG Iantibodies IareItransferredIfrom Imother Ito Ifetus Iacross
Iplacenta, Ior I IgA Iantibodies Iare Itransferred Ifrom Imother Ito Ibaby Iin Imilk Iduring Ibreastfeeding.

Artificially IAcquired IActive IImmunity- IAntigens Iintroduced Iduring Ivaccination Istimulate Icell-mediated
I and I antibody-mediated I immune Iresponses, I leading I to I production I of Imemory I cells. I Antigens Iare

I pretreated Ito I be Iimmunogenic Ibut Inot Ipathogenic I(they Iwill Itrigger Ian Iimmune Iresponse Ibut Inot Icause

Isignificant I illness.)

,Artificially IAcquired IPassive IImmunity- I Intravenous Iinjection Iof Iimmunoglobulins.

*****Know Ithe Ineural Imechanisms Iof Irespiratory Icontrol Iincluding Ithe IDRG Iand IPRG.

(872) IRespiratory Icenter- INeurons Iin Ithe Ipons Iand Imedulla Ioblongata Iof Ithe Ibrain Istem Ithat Iregulate
Ibreathing. I It Iis Idivided Iinto Ithe Imedullary Irespiratory Icenter Iand Ithe Ipontine Irespiratory I center.

Within Ithe Imedullary Irespiratory Icenter, Iyou Ifind Itwo Irespiratory Igroups, Ithe Iventral Irespiratory Igroup
I (AKA I expiratory I area) I and I the I dorsal Irespiratory I group I (AKA I inspiratory I area). I The I DRG Igenerates

I impulses Ito Ithe Idiaphragm Ivia Ithe Iphrenic Inerves Iand Ithe Iexternal Iintercostals Ivia Ithe Iintercostal Inerves.

IThese I impulses I trigger I contraction I of I these I muscles I which I in I turn I execute I inhalation. I When I the I nerves

I are I not I firing, I this I passive Irelaxation I allows I recoil I of I the I lungs I and I thoracic Iwall, I passive I exhalation. I The

I VRG I is I only Iactivated I during I forceful I inhalation Iand I trigger I the I accessory Imuscles Ito I work. IAn I important

Ipart I of I the I VRG I is I the I Pre-Botzinger I Complex I which I is I believed I to I be I important I in I the I generation I of I the

I rhythm I of I breathing I (Pacemaker I cells)

.

PRG I(Pontine IRespiratory IGroup)- IA Icollection Iof Ineurons Iin Ithe Ipons Ithat Itransmits Inerve Iimpulses Ito
Ithe I dorsal I respiratory Igroup, Iand Imay Imodify I the I basic Irhythm I of I breathing. I (AKA I pneumotaxic Iarea)

IThe IPRG Imay Iplay Ia Irole Iin Iboth Iinhalation Iand Iexhalation Iby Imodifying Ithe Ibasic Irhythm Iof Ibreathing

I generated I by I the IVRG, Ias I when I exercising, I speaking, I or I sleeping.

Know Ithe Iprocess Iof Iinhalation Iand Iexhalation I(the Isteps Iinvolved)

(FIG. I24.13) IDuring IInhalation, Ithe Idiaphragm Icontracts Iand Ithe Iexternal Iintercostals Icontract. IThe Ichest
Icavity I expands, I and I the I alveolar I pressure I drops I below I atmospheric I pressure. I Air I flows I into I the I lungs I in

I response Ito Ithe Ipressure Igradient Iand Ithe Ilung Ivolume Iexpands. IDuring Ideep Iinhalation, Ithe Iscalene Iand

Isternocleidomastoid I muscles I expand I the I chest I further, I thereby I creating Ia Igreater Idrop I in I alveolar

I pressure.

During Iexhalation, ItheIdiaphragm Irelaxes Iand Ithe Iexternal Iintercostals Irelax. ITheIchest Iand Ilungs Irecoil,
Ithe Ichest Icavity Iretracts, Iand Ithe Ialveolar Ipressure Iincreases Iabove Iatmospheric Ipressure. IAir Iflows IoutIof

I the I lungs I in I response I to I the I pressure Igradient, I and I the I lung I volume I decreases. I During I forced

I exhalations, I the I internal I intercostals I and I the Iabdominal I muscles I contract, I thereby I reducing I the I size I of

Ithe I chest I cavity I further I and I creating Ia I greater I increase I in I alveolar I pressure.

, Inhalation:
• Diaphragm:Icontracts I&Imoves Idown
• Intercostal Imuscles: Icontract, Imove Iribs Iout
• Chest Ivolume: Iincreases
• Pressure Iin Ilungs: Idecreases
• Air IFlow:Ihigher Ipercentage Iof Ioxygen
IExhalation:

• Diaphragm:Irelaxes I& Imoves Iup
• Intercostals Imuscles: Irelax, Imove Iribs Iin.
• Chest Ivolume: Ilessens
• Pressure Iin Ilungs: Iincreases
• Air Iflow: Icarbon Idioxide Iout

*******Know Ithe Ifunctions Iof Ithe Ilymphatic Iand Iimmune Isystems.
*****The Iprimary Ifunctions Iof Ithe Ilymphatic IisIsystem Iis Ito I1. IDrain Iexcess Iinterstitial Ifluid, I2. ITransport
Idietary I lipids I and I lipid-soluble I vitamins, I and I 3. ICarry I out I immune I response.

Know Ithe Iprecursor IcellsIfor Iplatelets, Ilymphocytes, Ietc.IThe

precursor Icells Ifor Iplatelets Iare Imegakaryocytes.
I

, Membranes Isurrounding Ithe Iheart.

(690) IThe Ipericardium Isurrounds Iand Iprotects Ithe Iheart. ICovers Ithe Iheart Imuscle. I The Ipericardium
Iconsists I of I two I main I parts: I (1) I the I fibrous I pericardium I (tough, I inelastic, I dense I irregular I connective

Itissue) I -- I prevents I overstretching I of I the I heart, I provides I protection, I and I anchors I the I heart I in I the

I mediastinum. I and I (2) I the I serous I pericardium I (double I membrane I of I outer I parietal I layer I and I inner

I visceral Ilayer, Ifluid-lubricating Ipart Ibetween Ithese Ilayers, Ireduces Ifriction Ias Ithe Iheart Imoves.)

(Walls Iof Iheart=I3=Iepicardium, Imyocardium, Iendocardium)
Function Iof Itype II Iand Itype III Ialveolar Icells.
I

(854) IThe Ialveolar Iepithelium Icomprises Itwo Imain Icell Itypes: Ithe Ialveolar Itype II Iand Ialveolar Itype III
I cell. I The I type I I Icell: I simple I squamous Iepithelial Icells Ithat I form Ia Inearly I continuous Ilining Iof I the I alveolar

Iwall; Imain I site I of Igas I exchanges,

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