Final Exam Study Guide AP III
Essay questions to know
What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and how they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents
Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune responses Adaptive immunity has
both specificity and memory and is divided into 2 types
Cell-mediated
Antibody-mediated In cell-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells
The antigen is eliminated In antibody-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector
cells that produce antibodies
The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us against invasion of a wide
variety of pathogens and their toxins.
We are born with this kind of immunity
Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of invaders. 1st: Skin and mucou
membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body. It is found in the left hypochondriac
region between stomach and the diaphragm. It is composed of white pulp and red pulp. Red pulp filters
blood and gets rid of old or damaged blood cells. White pulp consists of immune cells and helps fight
infection. The spleen acts as a blood filter, if it detects bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it and the lymph
nodes create lymphocytes which act as defenders.
,What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration. What are their functions
and Location.
1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs tha
occurs when we inhale and exhale
2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli.
3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into body cells and carbon dioxide fro
body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem that regulate
breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the pontine respiratory center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the ventral respiratory group
(AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group (AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates
impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal nerves
These impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation. When the nerves a
not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall, passive exhalation. The VRG
is only activated during forceful inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to work. An important part
the VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in the generation of the rhythm
breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls rate of involuntary respiration
motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How does
loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues .
Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment and the tissues is the transpor
of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried both physically
dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is carried physically
dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as carbamino compounds, and as
bicarbonate.
Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically combined to the hemoglobin in
the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is normally transported combined with hemoglobin than is physica
dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular system could not supply sufficient oxyge
to meet tissue demands.
, Oxygen is loaded in blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the oxygen tension is 100 mm Hg as a resu
of alveolar ventilation. Oxygen is unloaded from the blood in the peripheral tissues where the oxygen
tension is roughly 40 mm Hg as a result of peripheral tissue oxygen consumption.
Calculation of minute ventilation and mean arterial pressure
(862) The minute ventilation (MV)- the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute- is respirato
rate multiplied by tidal volume:
MV = 12 breaths/ min x 500 mL/ breath
= 6 liters/ min (MAP), the average blood pressure in arteries, is roughly one-third of the way
between the diastolic and systolic pressures. It can be estimated as follows:
MAP = diastolic BP + 1/3 (systolic BP−diastolic BP)
Amount of air that moves in & out of lungs during normal breathing (500 ml normal)
Flow of blood in the heart
Blood flows through the heart first through the right atrium. It is deoxygenated blood that comes from th
inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, and coronary sinus. The blood then goes through the tricuspid va
then to the right ventricle. After the right ventricle it goes through the pulmonary valve then to the
pulmonary artery .the blood then goes to the lungs to become oxygenated.Oxygenated blood returns to t
heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. It goes through the mitral valve then left ventricl
It then goes to the aortic valve then to the aorta then to the body.
Blood cell lines
blood cell lines under Myeloid-
MAST TISSUE
RBC-(Erythrocyte), CFU-E, Proerythroblast Platelets-Megakaryoblast, CFU-Meg
Essay questions to know
What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and how they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents
Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune responses Adaptive immunity has
both specificity and memory and is divided into 2 types
Cell-mediated
Antibody-mediated In cell-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells
The antigen is eliminated In antibody-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector
cells that produce antibodies
The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us against invasion of a wide
variety of pathogens and their toxins.
We are born with this kind of immunity
Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of invaders. 1st: Skin and mucou
membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body. It is found in the left hypochondriac
region between stomach and the diaphragm. It is composed of white pulp and red pulp. Red pulp filters
blood and gets rid of old or damaged blood cells. White pulp consists of immune cells and helps fight
infection. The spleen acts as a blood filter, if it detects bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it and the lymph
nodes create lymphocytes which act as defenders.
,What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration. What are their functions
and Location.
1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs tha
occurs when we inhale and exhale
2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli.
3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into body cells and carbon dioxide fro
body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem that regulate
breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the pontine respiratory center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the ventral respiratory group
(AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group (AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates
impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal nerves
These impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation. When the nerves a
not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall, passive exhalation. The VRG
is only activated during forceful inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to work. An important part
the VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in the generation of the rhythm
breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls rate of involuntary respiration
motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How does
loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues .
Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment and the tissues is the transpor
of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried both physically
dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is carried physically
dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as carbamino compounds, and as
bicarbonate.
Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically combined to the hemoglobin in
the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is normally transported combined with hemoglobin than is physica
dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular system could not supply sufficient oxyge
to meet tissue demands.
, Oxygen is loaded in blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the oxygen tension is 100 mm Hg as a resu
of alveolar ventilation. Oxygen is unloaded from the blood in the peripheral tissues where the oxygen
tension is roughly 40 mm Hg as a result of peripheral tissue oxygen consumption.
Calculation of minute ventilation and mean arterial pressure
(862) The minute ventilation (MV)- the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute- is respirato
rate multiplied by tidal volume:
MV = 12 breaths/ min x 500 mL/ breath
= 6 liters/ min (MAP), the average blood pressure in arteries, is roughly one-third of the way
between the diastolic and systolic pressures. It can be estimated as follows:
MAP = diastolic BP + 1/3 (systolic BP−diastolic BP)
Amount of air that moves in & out of lungs during normal breathing (500 ml normal)
Flow of blood in the heart
Blood flows through the heart first through the right atrium. It is deoxygenated blood that comes from th
inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, and coronary sinus. The blood then goes through the tricuspid va
then to the right ventricle. After the right ventricle it goes through the pulmonary valve then to the
pulmonary artery .the blood then goes to the lungs to become oxygenated.Oxygenated blood returns to t
heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. It goes through the mitral valve then left ventricl
It then goes to the aortic valve then to the aorta then to the body.
Blood cell lines
blood cell lines under Myeloid-
MAST TISSUE
RBC-(Erythrocyte), CFU-E, Proerythroblast Platelets-Megakaryoblast, CFU-Meg
