PYC1501 BASIC PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY NOTES 2022.

PYC1501 BASIC PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY NOTES 2022. COGNITION: REASONING Reasoning: a process of goal-directed thinking that draws conclusions from a set of facts. Quality of reasoning depends on the suitability or relevance of the reasons we present to support our view. Two structures in reasoning: premise and conclusions Premise: statement from which the conclusion is inferred. Premise provides the evidence that supports your conclusion. Reasoning based on formal rules of logic • Deductive reasoning: drawing a conclusion that follows logically from 2 or more statements or premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion is true. • Inductive reasoning: Using available evidence to generate a conclusion about the likelihood of something. Conclusion is based on the premise, but the premise does not guarantee the conclusion. Premise only provides some support for the likelihood of the conclusion. Used when we form analogies or comparisons. (Assumptions) • Analogical reasoning: when you infer patterns or relations between things, for example, left is to right as up is to down. Differences between formal and informal reasoning: • FORMAL INFORMAL Premises are stated explicitly. Premises are more implied than implicit. The problem that is being reasoned about is (generally) not personally relevant. Personal consequences for every-day life. (leads to weaknesses in reasoning) Structures and rules are obvious. Structures and rules are less obvious. Usually only 1 correct solution. Generally several possible solutions. Fallacies: Conclusions are sometimes based on fallacies or misleading arguments. Fallacies use irrelevant premises to support a conclusion, as if those premises are relevant. Different types of fallacies: • Playing on someone's sympathy to get something done. • Trying to discredit an issue by discrediting the person who supports it. • Relying on the characteristics of a certain group in order to gain support for a particular conclusion. • Using a false analogy. • Using a slightly changed version of someone else's point of view as a basis for your reasoning. Critical reasoning: Thinking critically about the information that you have and looking at all the options and various explanations. Steps to improve critical reasoning ability: • Identify the problem (acknowledge and define) • Keep an open mind (avoid seeing things as extremes, try middle ground) • Remember the difference between language and reality. • Use open ended questions. • Avoid over-generalizations. • Be empathetic. • Obtain relevant information. • Use informal knowledge • Develop collective thinking. COGNITION: THINKING Thinking: a complex process of transforming available information to form new representations. Through thinking we process the symbolic representations of things. Three main symbol systems used in thinking: 1. Images: symbolic representations of objects and their characteristics. 2. Concepts: The categories we form as mental representations of groups of related items. Also abstracts. 1. Hierarchical organisation of concepts: A conceptual hierarchy is made up of at least 3 levels: a superordinate (top) level; intermediate level; subordinate level. Things that have common attributes fall on the same level. 2. Conceptual rules: used to decide whether or not something belongs to a certain concept. 1. Denotative meaning: Formal conceptual hierarchies are based on exact definitions or agreements about attributes in an objective sense. 2. Connotative meaning: personal meanings of concepts. 3. Conceptual errors: one dimensional thought = stereotyping; all-or-nothing thought = wrong. 4. Prototypes: ideal models of concepts. Helps to identify things efficiently. 5. 3. Language: A system of symbols to represent thoughts. 1. Inner speech: or implicit speech 2. Language & thought: not identical. EMOTION Emotion: Type of feeling, linked to the meaning of a particular situation. An emotion may move us to do something. Emotion: combination of physiological arousal combined with perceptual-cognitive processes (thinking and subjective experience), and observable behavioural expressions. COMPONENTS OF EMOTION: 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENT: ◦ Physiological arousal associated with emotions occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the activity of glands, smooth muscles and blood vessels. • ◦ Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system: SYMPATHETIC and PARASYMPATHETIC. Both active at all times; work together to bring about balance in a person's functioning. • ◦ Experience emotion → arousal increases → sympathetic system activates body for emergency action (fight or flight) → arousal leads to purposeful bodily changes that increase chance for survival. • ◦ Sudden, intense emotion → sympathetic effects could cause heart attack/sudden death if heart is weak/old. • ◦ Continued high levels of arousal from action of sympathetic system damages. Parasympathetic counter-balances this by reversing effects of emotional arousal. • ◦ After period of intense emotion: Parasympathetic = heart rate slows, pupil size returns to normal, blood pressure drops. • ◦ In this way PSNS restores balance and helps build up and conserve body energy. • ◦ PSNS responds slower than SNS. • ◦ After intense emotion/shock PS system may overreact, causing parasympathetic rebound. • ◦ PARASYMPATHETIC REBOUND: PS system continues to react even though balance has been restored. May lead to a lower blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, and even sudden death. • ◦ Connection between emotion and autonomic arousal provides the basis for the use of devices like lie detector/polygraph. • ◦ Polygraph records physiological changes in body as a person is being questioned (heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and amount of sweat on the hand). 2. COGNITIVE-PERCEPTUAL COMPONENT: • emotions relate to subjective experience • People’s cognitive processes about events in their lives are the key determinants of the emotion they experience. • Some theorists believe that the cognitive process about an event is as important as the event itself. 3. BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT: • Emotions are usually expressed in body language or non-verbal behaviour. • Basic facial expressions are fairly universal, but the interpretation of many expressions can be shaped by learning. THEORIES OF EMOTION Notes on emotion: • The experience of emotions is the result of the interaction between physiological arousal and psychological arousal. • Psychological arousalis the process whereby people become aware of situations and feelings through conscious thinking. • Psycho-physiological arousal: arousal that involves both physiological and psychological arousal. • Continuum of physiological arousal: one's emotions and behaviour becomes more intense and changes qualitatively as the level of physiological arousal rises. • Feelings are not determined by physiological arousal itself. The meaning that one ascribes to the situation in conjunction with physiological arousal determines the nature and intensity of one's feelings. 1. Schachter's two-factor theory of emotion • Emotions occur when we apply a particular label to general physical arousal. Experience of emotion depends on 2 factors: autonomic arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal. • People use environmental cues as the cause of their arousal. • Stimulation →arousal →label/appraisal →emotion + behaviour • Criticised by people who say that emotions may occur without first experiencing physiological arousal. 2. Cognitive appraisal theory • Components of physiological arousal and cognitive processes are not equally important in the interpretation of emotion. The way we think about (or make cognitive appraisal of) a situation results in emotions. • The meaning attached to the stimulus situation at that moment is more important than the physiological arousal, in other words your interpretation/appraisal of the situation/event is the primary cause of emotions and can result in you experiencing different emotions. • Stimulation →primary appraisal →differentiation of emotion →physiological arousal • Unconscious level of thinking occurs before feeling. CLASSIFICATION OF EMOTIONS 1. Primary and secondary emotions • Robert Plutchik proposed that there are 8 primary/basic emotions: fear; surprise; sadness; disgust; anger; anticipation; joy; acceptance. Combinations of these lead to others. Joy and acceptance = love. Anticipation + joy = optimism. Surprise + sadness = disappointment. • Because of cultural differences in the experience, we now distinguish between primary and secondary emotions. • Primary emotions are those shared by everyone. • Criteria for identifying primary emotions: 1. They must be evident in all cultures. 2. They must contribute to survival. 3. They must be associated with a distinct facial expression. 4. They must be evident in non-human species. • No conclusive agreements on which emotions qualify as basic/primary emotions. • Secondary emotions are those that are found in some cultures. May be considered as the various combinations of primary emotions as influenced by the cultural background. 2. Positive and negative emotions • Positive emotions may create an urge to be creative, to explore, to seek new experiences, and to grow. Positive emotions encourage personal growth and social connection. May lead to the development of emotional intelligence. • Negative emotions may contribute to the development of physical illnesses, such as headaches, stomach ache or ulcers, psychological problems such as depression and anxiety. 3. Emotions vary in intensity • Intensity of emotions vary on a continuum, ranging from extremely low intensity to extremely high intensity. • Intensity of feelings interacts with your level of physiological arousal and the quality of emotion you are experiencing. 4. Internally and externally expressed emotions • emotions are expressed and recognised in different ways • physiological changes are internal expressions of emotions • There are subtle but distinct physiological changes associated with specific emotions. Physiological changes are internal expressions of emotions. • Emotions can be externally expressed through words and through non-verbal communication such as body language, facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, body movement.