BIOL110 – Biology: Basic Concepts and
Biodiversity
Final Exam Study Guide
Pennsylvania State University – Fall 2015
,BIOL 110 - Lecture 1 - Carbon and Life
Life
● There is great diversity of life, but we are joined by a common ancestor that existed 3.7
billion years ago
● Water is essential to all life
The Properties of Water
● Water, H2O, is a polar molecule
○ Polar - having different electrical properties on opposite ends
○ Oxygen has a partial negative charge, Hydrogen has a partial positive charge
○ Oxygen is highly electronegative
■ Electronegativity - the tendency of an atom to pull electrons close to it
● Oxygen forms covalent bonds (bonds that involve sharing of electron) with hydrogen
● Water molecules form hydrogen bonds between others
● Many special properties
○ H-bonding allows for cohesion which results in surface tension (resistance to
disruption at the surface)
■ Ex: Allows lizards to across surface of water
○ Water is an excellent solvent
■ Hydrophilic substances readily dissolve in water, attract water
■ Hydrophobic substances do not interact with water, repel water
● Ex: hydrocarbons
■ Amphipathic substances can be both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
○ High specific heat
■ Large bodies of water have relatively stable temperatures
○ High heat of vaporization
■ Water is relatively resistant to phase changes
Carbon
● Carbon, C, is the backbone of biological macromolecules, of which all life contains
○ Carbohydrates
○ Lipids
○ Proteins
○ Nucleic Acids
● C has four electrons, allowing for four stable associations with up to four other atoms
● Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are formed through the synthesis of many
similar or identical building blocks called monomers to form polymers
○ Anabolism - the general process of joining monomers into polymers
○ Catabolism - The general process of breaking down polymers into monomers
BIOL 110 - Lecture 2 - Macromolecules
Macromolecules
, ● Large organic compounds
○ Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
● Play important roles in energy storage and structure
Carbohydrates
● Have a basic structure written as C(H2O)n
○ Ex: Glucose has the structural formula C6H12O6
● Function for energy storage (starch), as structural molecules (cellulose), and in
information storage in nucleic acids
● Monosaccharides are simple sugars
○ Ex: glucose, fructose, ribose, galactose, ribulose
● Disaccharides are sugars formed by a condensation reaction between two
monosaccharides
○ Ex: Condensation synthesis between two glucose forms a maltose
● Polysaccharides can consist of up to several thousand monomers of simple sugars
● NOTE: -ose is used to describe all carbohydrates
● Excess sugars are stored in liver in the form of glycogen by animals
● Starch vs. cellulose
○ Starch uses alpha form of glucose
○ Cellulose uses beta form of glucose
■ We don’t digest cellulose because we don’t have the bonds to break it
Proteins
● Functionally and structurally diverse
○ Main biological functions are structural, mechanical, and enzymatic
● Basic monomer of proteins are amino acids
○ General structure is a carbon attached to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl
group (COOH), a hydrogen, and an “R” group
○ There are twenty different “R” groups and thus 20 different amino acids
● Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids
○ Can take on different levels of structure:
■ Primary - sequence of amino acids
■ Secondary - alpha helices, beta pleated sheets → hydrogen bonding bt R
groups
■ Tertiary - further folding of the protein → hydrophobic/hydrophilic
interactions
■ Quaternary - more than one polypeptide joined together
● Real world example: Sickle-Cell Anemia
○ This disease results in abnormal production of hemoglobin → misshapen red
blood cells
Lipids
● All lipids are hydrophobic and are not polymers
● Main functions are energy storage, structural purposes, and hormone and cell signaling
● Lipids come in the form of dietary fats, phospholipids, and steroids
● Dietary fats and oils, also known as triacylglycerols
○ Glycerol attached to three fatty acid chains via condensation synthesis
○ Saturated fats are solid at room temperature - has single bonds only
○ Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature - has double bonds
, BIOL 110 - Lecture 3 - More Macromolecules
Lipids (continued)
● Phospholipids are amphipathic with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
○ Important component of cellular membrane
○ In water, will form a phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads on the outside
and hydrophobic tails on the inside
● Steroids are lipids characterized by a four-fused ring structure
○ Ex: cholesterol and hormones produced from cholesterol (such as estrogen and
testosterone)
● Cholesterol is an important part of cell membranes and sexual development
○ ex: an abnormal distribution of sex chromosomes can result in
gynandromorphism (having both male and female sexual characteristics)
Nucleic Acids
● Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) work together to affect protein
synthesis
● Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
○ Nucleotides - simple structures consisting of a sugar, a phosphate, and a
nitrogenous base
■ Nitrogenous base - ringed structures consisting of nitrogen, carbon, and
hydrogen
● RNA has ribose as their sugar and the following bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
uracil
○ Typically a single-stranded molecule
● DNA has deoxyribose as their sugar and the following bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine
○ DNA usually exists as paired strands; cytosine hydrogen bonds with guanine,
and thymine hydrogen bonds with adenine
BIOL 110 - Lecture 4 - Early Earth
Early Earth
● Astronomical data indicates the universe is about 13.7 billion years old
○ Assumes the the universe is constantly expanding
● “Big Bang” - all matter in the known universe arose from this common point
● Radiometric dating techniques have determined our solar system formed 4.55-4.56
billion years ago
○ The Hubble telescope was dispatched in 1990 to explore/photograph our galaxy
● Conditions on early Earth
Biodiversity
Final Exam Study Guide
Pennsylvania State University – Fall 2015
,BIOL 110 - Lecture 1 - Carbon and Life
Life
● There is great diversity of life, but we are joined by a common ancestor that existed 3.7
billion years ago
● Water is essential to all life
The Properties of Water
● Water, H2O, is a polar molecule
○ Polar - having different electrical properties on opposite ends
○ Oxygen has a partial negative charge, Hydrogen has a partial positive charge
○ Oxygen is highly electronegative
■ Electronegativity - the tendency of an atom to pull electrons close to it
● Oxygen forms covalent bonds (bonds that involve sharing of electron) with hydrogen
● Water molecules form hydrogen bonds between others
● Many special properties
○ H-bonding allows for cohesion which results in surface tension (resistance to
disruption at the surface)
■ Ex: Allows lizards to across surface of water
○ Water is an excellent solvent
■ Hydrophilic substances readily dissolve in water, attract water
■ Hydrophobic substances do not interact with water, repel water
● Ex: hydrocarbons
■ Amphipathic substances can be both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
○ High specific heat
■ Large bodies of water have relatively stable temperatures
○ High heat of vaporization
■ Water is relatively resistant to phase changes
Carbon
● Carbon, C, is the backbone of biological macromolecules, of which all life contains
○ Carbohydrates
○ Lipids
○ Proteins
○ Nucleic Acids
● C has four electrons, allowing for four stable associations with up to four other atoms
● Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are formed through the synthesis of many
similar or identical building blocks called monomers to form polymers
○ Anabolism - the general process of joining monomers into polymers
○ Catabolism - The general process of breaking down polymers into monomers
BIOL 110 - Lecture 2 - Macromolecules
Macromolecules
, ● Large organic compounds
○ Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
● Play important roles in energy storage and structure
Carbohydrates
● Have a basic structure written as C(H2O)n
○ Ex: Glucose has the structural formula C6H12O6
● Function for energy storage (starch), as structural molecules (cellulose), and in
information storage in nucleic acids
● Monosaccharides are simple sugars
○ Ex: glucose, fructose, ribose, galactose, ribulose
● Disaccharides are sugars formed by a condensation reaction between two
monosaccharides
○ Ex: Condensation synthesis between two glucose forms a maltose
● Polysaccharides can consist of up to several thousand monomers of simple sugars
● NOTE: -ose is used to describe all carbohydrates
● Excess sugars are stored in liver in the form of glycogen by animals
● Starch vs. cellulose
○ Starch uses alpha form of glucose
○ Cellulose uses beta form of glucose
■ We don’t digest cellulose because we don’t have the bonds to break it
Proteins
● Functionally and structurally diverse
○ Main biological functions are structural, mechanical, and enzymatic
● Basic monomer of proteins are amino acids
○ General structure is a carbon attached to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl
group (COOH), a hydrogen, and an “R” group
○ There are twenty different “R” groups and thus 20 different amino acids
● Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids
○ Can take on different levels of structure:
■ Primary - sequence of amino acids
■ Secondary - alpha helices, beta pleated sheets → hydrogen bonding bt R
groups
■ Tertiary - further folding of the protein → hydrophobic/hydrophilic
interactions
■ Quaternary - more than one polypeptide joined together
● Real world example: Sickle-Cell Anemia
○ This disease results in abnormal production of hemoglobin → misshapen red
blood cells
Lipids
● All lipids are hydrophobic and are not polymers
● Main functions are energy storage, structural purposes, and hormone and cell signaling
● Lipids come in the form of dietary fats, phospholipids, and steroids
● Dietary fats and oils, also known as triacylglycerols
○ Glycerol attached to three fatty acid chains via condensation synthesis
○ Saturated fats are solid at room temperature - has single bonds only
○ Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature - has double bonds
, BIOL 110 - Lecture 3 - More Macromolecules
Lipids (continued)
● Phospholipids are amphipathic with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
○ Important component of cellular membrane
○ In water, will form a phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads on the outside
and hydrophobic tails on the inside
● Steroids are lipids characterized by a four-fused ring structure
○ Ex: cholesterol and hormones produced from cholesterol (such as estrogen and
testosterone)
● Cholesterol is an important part of cell membranes and sexual development
○ ex: an abnormal distribution of sex chromosomes can result in
gynandromorphism (having both male and female sexual characteristics)
Nucleic Acids
● Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) work together to affect protein
synthesis
● Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
○ Nucleotides - simple structures consisting of a sugar, a phosphate, and a
nitrogenous base
■ Nitrogenous base - ringed structures consisting of nitrogen, carbon, and
hydrogen
● RNA has ribose as their sugar and the following bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
uracil
○ Typically a single-stranded molecule
● DNA has deoxyribose as their sugar and the following bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine
○ DNA usually exists as paired strands; cytosine hydrogen bonds with guanine,
and thymine hydrogen bonds with adenine
BIOL 110 - Lecture 4 - Early Earth
Early Earth
● Astronomical data indicates the universe is about 13.7 billion years old
○ Assumes the the universe is constantly expanding
● “Big Bang” - all matter in the known universe arose from this common point
● Radiometric dating techniques have determined our solar system formed 4.55-4.56
billion years ago
○ The Hubble telescope was dispatched in 1990 to explore/photograph our galaxy
● Conditions on early Earth
