BIO 251-N / A&P 1 Quizzes and comprehensive Review
Final Exam Topic Areas – Bio 251
o Definitions
• Physiology: The science of body functions and how the body parts work
• Anatomy: The science of body structures and the relationships among them
• Homeostasis: condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of
the body’s many regulatory processes. The body’s equilibrium can shift among points in a narrow range that
is compatible with maintaining life. Important in maintaining volume and composition of body fluids.
▪ Negative Feedback: reverses a change in a controlled situation. Ex. Blood pressure, notice of BP
rising causes a sequence of events sending nerve impulses to various places to bind down the
pressure. Heart rate decreases and blood vessels dilate which cause BP to decrease
▪ Positive Feedback: strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the bodies controlled conditions.
Control center still provides commands to an effector, but this time the effector produces a
physiological response that adds to or reinforces the initial change in the controlled condition, this
continues until interrupted. Ex. Childbirth, nerve impulses notice contraction and uterus opening
wider which causes the hormone oxytocin to be released. This doesn’t stop being produced until
there is no longer a need for oxytocin and the body has been released.
• Metabolism: The sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
• Effector: is a body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect
that changes the controlled condition. Nearly every organ or tissue in the body can behave as an effector.
When your body temperature drops sharply, your brain (control center) sends nerve impulses (output) to your
skeletal muscles (effectors). The result is shivering, which generates heat and raises your body
temperature.
• Receptor: is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control
center. This pathway is called an afferent pathway since the information flows toward the control center.
Typically, the input is in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals. For example, certain nerve endings
in the skin sense temperature and can detect changes, such as a dramatic drop in temperature.
• Melanin (melanocytes): About 8% of the epidermal cells are melanocytes, which develop from the ectoderm
of a developing embryo and produce the pigment melanin. Their long, slender projections extend between the
keratinocytes and transfer melanin granules to them. Melanin is a yellow-red or brown-black pigment that
contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging ultraviolet (UV) light. Once inside keratinocytes, the melanin
granules cluster to form a protective veil over the nucleus, on the side toward the skin surface. In this way,
they shield the nuclear DNA from damage by UV light. Although their melanin granules effectively protect
keratinocytes, melanocytes themselves are particularly susceptible to damage by UV light.
• Keratin (keratinocytes): About 90% of epidermal cells are keratinocytes, which are arranged in four or five
layers and produce the protein keratin. Keratin is a tough, fibrous protein that helps protect the skin and
underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals. Keratinocytes also produce lamellar
granules, which release a water-repellent sealant that decreases water entry and loss and inhibits the entry of
foreign materials.
• Yellow marrow (what’s stored): triglycerides are stored here
• Red marrow (function) : produces blood cells
• Hematopoiesis: the process by which the formed elements of blood are produced
• Articular cartilage: The articular cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the
epiphysis where the bone forms an articulation (joint) with another bone. Articular cartilage reduces friction
and absorbs shock at freely movable joints. Because articular cartilage lacks a perichondrium and lacks blood
vessels, repair of damage is limited
• Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough connective tissue sheath and its associated blood supply that
surrounds the bone surface wherever it is not covered by articular cartilage. It is composed of an outer
fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue and an inner osteogenic layer that consists of cells. Some of
the cells enable bone to grow in thickness, but not in length. The periosteum also protects the bone, assists in
fracture repair, helps nourish bone tissue, and serves as an attachment point for ligaments and tendons. The
periosteum is attached to the underlying bone by perforating fibers or Sharpey’s fibers, thick bundles of
,BIO 251-N / A&P 1 Quizzes and comprehensive Review
collagen that extend from the periosteum into the bone extracellular matrix.
• Endosteum: is a thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity. It contains a single layer of bone-forming
cells and a small amount of connective tissue.
• Callus: An area of hardened and thickened skin that is usually seen in palms and soles and is due to
persistent pressure and friction
• Keloid: An elevated, irregular darkened area of excess scar tissue caused by collagen formation during
healing. It extends beyond the original injury and is tender and frequently painful. It occurs in the dermis and
underlying subcutaneous tissue, usually after trauma, surgery, a burn, or severe acne; more common in
people of African descent
• Osteoblast: Cell formed from an osteogenic cell that participates in bone formation by secreting some
organic components and inorganic salts.
• Osteocytes: A mature bone cell that maintains the daily activities of bone tissue.
• Osteoclast: A large, multinuclear cell that resorbs (destroys) bone matrix
o pH scale (as related to chemistry)
• Ranges from 0 to 14. This scale is based on the concentration of H+. pH of 7 is neutral ex. Water. A
solution with more H+ is acidic and solutions with more OH- are basic or alkaline. Lower than 7 is
acidic. Higher than 7 is basic. If pH falls below 7.35 we have acidosis. If higher than 7.45 we have
alkalosis.
• pH range of blood
• 7.35 – 7.45
• Lower = acidosis
• Higher = alkalosis
o Tissue types
▪ Epithelial Tissue: covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities and forms glands
• Stratified Squamous
▪ Connective Tissue: connects, supports and protects body organs and cavities and forms glands
• Blood
▪ Muscular Tissue: contracts to make body parts move and generates heat
• Cardiac- involuntary, yes striations
• Skeletal- voluntary, yes striations
• Smooth – involuntary, no striations
▪ Nervous Tissue: carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses
o Different types of exocrine glands
• Exocrine: secrete their products into ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining
epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ. Can be unicellular or multicellular.
Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that secrete mucus directly onto the apical surface
of a lining epithelium
• Sebaceous – oil gland, simple, branched acinar (rounded) glands. With few exceptions, they are
connected to hair follicles. The secreting portion of a sebaceous gland lies in the dermis and usually
opens into the neck of a hair follicle. In some locations, such as the lips, glans penis, labia minora, and
tarsal glands of the eyelids, sebaceous glands open directly onto the surface of the skin. Absent in the
palms and soles, sebaceous glands are small in most areas of the trunk and limbs, but large in the skin of
the breasts, face, neck, and superior chest.
• Sudoriferous – sweat gland, the cells of these glands release sweat, or perspiration, into hair follicles or
onto the skin surface through pores. Sweat glands are divided into two main types, Eccrine and apocrine,
based on their structure and type of secretion.
• There are two categories
1. Eccrine – seen everywhere else over the body, goes directly to the surface
2. Apocrine – found in the axillary area, secretes into hair follicle then it goes to the surface
• Ceruminous – earwax, modified sweat glands in the external ear, called ceruminous glands produce a
waxy lubricating secretion. The secretory portions of ceruminous glands lie in the subcutaneous layer,
,BIO 251-N / A&P 1 Quizzes and comprehensive Review
deep to sebaceous glands. Their excretory ducts open either directly onto the surface of the external
, BIO 251-N / A&P 1 Quizzes and comprehensive Review
auditory canal (ear canal) or into ducts of sebaceous glands. The combined secretion of the ceruminous
and sebaceous glands is a yellowish material called cerumen or earwax. Cerumen, together with hairs in
the external auditory canal, provides a sticky barrier that impedes the entrance of foreign bodies and
insects. Cerumen also waterproofs the canal and prevents bacteria and fungi from entering cells.
o Types of glandular secretions (description)
• Merocrine: synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER; processed, sorted, and packaged by the
Golgi complex and released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis. – Portion of cell pinches
off
• Apocrine: accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell. Then, that
portion of the cell pinches off by exocytosis from the rest of the cell to release the secretion. Cell repairs
itself and repeats process. – Releases secretion by exocytosis
• Holocrine: accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol. As the secretory cell matures, it ruptures and
becomes the secretory products. – Looses whole cell
1. **B/c the cell ruptures in this mode of secretion, the secretion contains large
amounts of lipids from the plasma membrane and intracellular membranes. The
sloughed off cell is replaced by a new cell
o Isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic (concepts)
• Isotonic: The concentrations of solutes that cannot cross the plasma membrane are the same on both sides
of the membrane in this solution. Equal concentrations inside and outside of cell.
• Hypotonic: Shift of fluid that is ECF to the inside of the cell ICF. Cell will swell can lysis or break
apart. Solution has lower concentration of solutes. Water molecules enter the cell faster than they leave.
• Hypertonic: Higher concentration of solutes than does the cytosol inside the RBCs. Water molecules
move out of the cell faster than they enter. Shrinkage crenation
• Diffusion:
• Osmosis:
o Positive feedback loop (example)
• Ex. Childbirth, contractions ( Look in definitions section)
o Function of the skeletal system
• Support: The skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues and
providing attachment points for the tendons of most skeletal muscles.
• Protection: The skeleton protects the most important internal organs from injury.
• Assistance in movement: Most skeletal muscles attach to bones; when they contract, they pull on bones
to produce movement. This function is discussed in detail in Chapter 10.
• Mineral homeostasis (storage and release): Bone tissue makes up about 18% of the weight of the
human body. It stores several minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, which contribute to the
strength of bone. Bone tissue stores about 99% of the body’s calcium. On demand, bone releases
minerals into the blood to maintain critical mineral balances (homeostasis) and to distribute the minerals
to other parts of the body.
• Blood cell production: Within certain bones, a connective tissue called red bone marrow produces red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, a process called hemopoiesis. Red bone marrow consists of
developing blood cells, adipocytes, fibroblasts, and macrophages within a network of reticular fibers. It
is present in developing bones of the fetus and in some adult bones, such as the hip (pelvic) bones, ribs,
sternum (breastbone), vertebrae (backbones), skull, and ends of the bones of the humerus (arm bone) and
femur (thigh bone). In a newborn, all bone marrow is red and is involved in hemopoiesis. With
increasing age, much of the bone marrow changes from red to yellow.
• Triglyceride storage: Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, which store triglycerides.
The stored triglycerides are a potential chemical energy reserve
• Stores energy
o Bones of Axial and Appendicular skeleton (Chart on p.193)
• Axial: skull bones, facial bones and cranial bones, 3 occicles, vertebrae 7, thoracic 12 (sternum and ribs)
Final Exam Topic Areas – Bio 251
o Definitions
• Physiology: The science of body functions and how the body parts work
• Anatomy: The science of body structures and the relationships among them
• Homeostasis: condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of
the body’s many regulatory processes. The body’s equilibrium can shift among points in a narrow range that
is compatible with maintaining life. Important in maintaining volume and composition of body fluids.
▪ Negative Feedback: reverses a change in a controlled situation. Ex. Blood pressure, notice of BP
rising causes a sequence of events sending nerve impulses to various places to bind down the
pressure. Heart rate decreases and blood vessels dilate which cause BP to decrease
▪ Positive Feedback: strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the bodies controlled conditions.
Control center still provides commands to an effector, but this time the effector produces a
physiological response that adds to or reinforces the initial change in the controlled condition, this
continues until interrupted. Ex. Childbirth, nerve impulses notice contraction and uterus opening
wider which causes the hormone oxytocin to be released. This doesn’t stop being produced until
there is no longer a need for oxytocin and the body has been released.
• Metabolism: The sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
• Effector: is a body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect
that changes the controlled condition. Nearly every organ or tissue in the body can behave as an effector.
When your body temperature drops sharply, your brain (control center) sends nerve impulses (output) to your
skeletal muscles (effectors). The result is shivering, which generates heat and raises your body
temperature.
• Receptor: is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control
center. This pathway is called an afferent pathway since the information flows toward the control center.
Typically, the input is in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals. For example, certain nerve endings
in the skin sense temperature and can detect changes, such as a dramatic drop in temperature.
• Melanin (melanocytes): About 8% of the epidermal cells are melanocytes, which develop from the ectoderm
of a developing embryo and produce the pigment melanin. Their long, slender projections extend between the
keratinocytes and transfer melanin granules to them. Melanin is a yellow-red or brown-black pigment that
contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging ultraviolet (UV) light. Once inside keratinocytes, the melanin
granules cluster to form a protective veil over the nucleus, on the side toward the skin surface. In this way,
they shield the nuclear DNA from damage by UV light. Although their melanin granules effectively protect
keratinocytes, melanocytes themselves are particularly susceptible to damage by UV light.
• Keratin (keratinocytes): About 90% of epidermal cells are keratinocytes, which are arranged in four or five
layers and produce the protein keratin. Keratin is a tough, fibrous protein that helps protect the skin and
underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals. Keratinocytes also produce lamellar
granules, which release a water-repellent sealant that decreases water entry and loss and inhibits the entry of
foreign materials.
• Yellow marrow (what’s stored): triglycerides are stored here
• Red marrow (function) : produces blood cells
• Hematopoiesis: the process by which the formed elements of blood are produced
• Articular cartilage: The articular cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the
epiphysis where the bone forms an articulation (joint) with another bone. Articular cartilage reduces friction
and absorbs shock at freely movable joints. Because articular cartilage lacks a perichondrium and lacks blood
vessels, repair of damage is limited
• Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough connective tissue sheath and its associated blood supply that
surrounds the bone surface wherever it is not covered by articular cartilage. It is composed of an outer
fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue and an inner osteogenic layer that consists of cells. Some of
the cells enable bone to grow in thickness, but not in length. The periosteum also protects the bone, assists in
fracture repair, helps nourish bone tissue, and serves as an attachment point for ligaments and tendons. The
periosteum is attached to the underlying bone by perforating fibers or Sharpey’s fibers, thick bundles of
,BIO 251-N / A&P 1 Quizzes and comprehensive Review
collagen that extend from the periosteum into the bone extracellular matrix.
• Endosteum: is a thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity. It contains a single layer of bone-forming
cells and a small amount of connective tissue.
• Callus: An area of hardened and thickened skin that is usually seen in palms and soles and is due to
persistent pressure and friction
• Keloid: An elevated, irregular darkened area of excess scar tissue caused by collagen formation during
healing. It extends beyond the original injury and is tender and frequently painful. It occurs in the dermis and
underlying subcutaneous tissue, usually after trauma, surgery, a burn, or severe acne; more common in
people of African descent
• Osteoblast: Cell formed from an osteogenic cell that participates in bone formation by secreting some
organic components and inorganic salts.
• Osteocytes: A mature bone cell that maintains the daily activities of bone tissue.
• Osteoclast: A large, multinuclear cell that resorbs (destroys) bone matrix
o pH scale (as related to chemistry)
• Ranges from 0 to 14. This scale is based on the concentration of H+. pH of 7 is neutral ex. Water. A
solution with more H+ is acidic and solutions with more OH- are basic or alkaline. Lower than 7 is
acidic. Higher than 7 is basic. If pH falls below 7.35 we have acidosis. If higher than 7.45 we have
alkalosis.
• pH range of blood
• 7.35 – 7.45
• Lower = acidosis
• Higher = alkalosis
o Tissue types
▪ Epithelial Tissue: covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities and forms glands
• Stratified Squamous
▪ Connective Tissue: connects, supports and protects body organs and cavities and forms glands
• Blood
▪ Muscular Tissue: contracts to make body parts move and generates heat
• Cardiac- involuntary, yes striations
• Skeletal- voluntary, yes striations
• Smooth – involuntary, no striations
▪ Nervous Tissue: carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses
o Different types of exocrine glands
• Exocrine: secrete their products into ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining
epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ. Can be unicellular or multicellular.
Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that secrete mucus directly onto the apical surface
of a lining epithelium
• Sebaceous – oil gland, simple, branched acinar (rounded) glands. With few exceptions, they are
connected to hair follicles. The secreting portion of a sebaceous gland lies in the dermis and usually
opens into the neck of a hair follicle. In some locations, such as the lips, glans penis, labia minora, and
tarsal glands of the eyelids, sebaceous glands open directly onto the surface of the skin. Absent in the
palms and soles, sebaceous glands are small in most areas of the trunk and limbs, but large in the skin of
the breasts, face, neck, and superior chest.
• Sudoriferous – sweat gland, the cells of these glands release sweat, or perspiration, into hair follicles or
onto the skin surface through pores. Sweat glands are divided into two main types, Eccrine and apocrine,
based on their structure and type of secretion.
• There are two categories
1. Eccrine – seen everywhere else over the body, goes directly to the surface
2. Apocrine – found in the axillary area, secretes into hair follicle then it goes to the surface
• Ceruminous – earwax, modified sweat glands in the external ear, called ceruminous glands produce a
waxy lubricating secretion. The secretory portions of ceruminous glands lie in the subcutaneous layer,
,BIO 251-N / A&P 1 Quizzes and comprehensive Review
deep to sebaceous glands. Their excretory ducts open either directly onto the surface of the external
, BIO 251-N / A&P 1 Quizzes and comprehensive Review
auditory canal (ear canal) or into ducts of sebaceous glands. The combined secretion of the ceruminous
and sebaceous glands is a yellowish material called cerumen or earwax. Cerumen, together with hairs in
the external auditory canal, provides a sticky barrier that impedes the entrance of foreign bodies and
insects. Cerumen also waterproofs the canal and prevents bacteria and fungi from entering cells.
o Types of glandular secretions (description)
• Merocrine: synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER; processed, sorted, and packaged by the
Golgi complex and released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis. – Portion of cell pinches
off
• Apocrine: accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell. Then, that
portion of the cell pinches off by exocytosis from the rest of the cell to release the secretion. Cell repairs
itself and repeats process. – Releases secretion by exocytosis
• Holocrine: accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol. As the secretory cell matures, it ruptures and
becomes the secretory products. – Looses whole cell
1. **B/c the cell ruptures in this mode of secretion, the secretion contains large
amounts of lipids from the plasma membrane and intracellular membranes. The
sloughed off cell is replaced by a new cell
o Isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic (concepts)
• Isotonic: The concentrations of solutes that cannot cross the plasma membrane are the same on both sides
of the membrane in this solution. Equal concentrations inside and outside of cell.
• Hypotonic: Shift of fluid that is ECF to the inside of the cell ICF. Cell will swell can lysis or break
apart. Solution has lower concentration of solutes. Water molecules enter the cell faster than they leave.
• Hypertonic: Higher concentration of solutes than does the cytosol inside the RBCs. Water molecules
move out of the cell faster than they enter. Shrinkage crenation
• Diffusion:
• Osmosis:
o Positive feedback loop (example)
• Ex. Childbirth, contractions ( Look in definitions section)
o Function of the skeletal system
• Support: The skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues and
providing attachment points for the tendons of most skeletal muscles.
• Protection: The skeleton protects the most important internal organs from injury.
• Assistance in movement: Most skeletal muscles attach to bones; when they contract, they pull on bones
to produce movement. This function is discussed in detail in Chapter 10.
• Mineral homeostasis (storage and release): Bone tissue makes up about 18% of the weight of the
human body. It stores several minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, which contribute to the
strength of bone. Bone tissue stores about 99% of the body’s calcium. On demand, bone releases
minerals into the blood to maintain critical mineral balances (homeostasis) and to distribute the minerals
to other parts of the body.
• Blood cell production: Within certain bones, a connective tissue called red bone marrow produces red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, a process called hemopoiesis. Red bone marrow consists of
developing blood cells, adipocytes, fibroblasts, and macrophages within a network of reticular fibers. It
is present in developing bones of the fetus and in some adult bones, such as the hip (pelvic) bones, ribs,
sternum (breastbone), vertebrae (backbones), skull, and ends of the bones of the humerus (arm bone) and
femur (thigh bone). In a newborn, all bone marrow is red and is involved in hemopoiesis. With
increasing age, much of the bone marrow changes from red to yellow.
• Triglyceride storage: Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, which store triglycerides.
The stored triglycerides are a potential chemical energy reserve
• Stores energy
o Bones of Axial and Appendicular skeleton (Chart on p.193)
• Axial: skull bones, facial bones and cranial bones, 3 occicles, vertebrae 7, thoracic 12 (sternum and ribs)
