HESI ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE

HESI ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE A natomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body M icroscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules C H CYTOLOGY: study of cells HISTOLOGY: study of tissues P hysiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures *Smallest living is a CELL *Smallest organism is an ATOM L evels of Hierarchy A tom- the most basic complete unit of an element M olecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction O rganelles- are cells parts that function within a cell C ells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell. T issues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs O rgan- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues. O rgan System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous. Humans have 11 Organ Systems C ell Structures ● N ● R ● G ● V ● C ● M ● C ● C ucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin ibosomes- small structures that build proteins olgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell acuoles- storage, digestion, and waste removal ytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell icrotubules- part of the cytoskeletal ytosol- liquid material in cell ell membrane- separate internal and external cellular environment; allows material to enter/exit ● E ndoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell ● M itochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular respiration A nimal Cells C entrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis C entriole- cylinders involved in cellular digestion L ysosomes- the purpose of the lysosomes is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies C ilia- cause cell to move F lagella- whip tail to move cell T ISSUES: → Group of CELLS. → Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective. 1. . Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin 2. . Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph. It protects and binds body parts. a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support → Fibrous b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends against disease. c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells 3. . Muscle: supports and move body Smooth Cardiac Skeletal 4. . Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons: control responses to changes in environment. M itosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase I nterphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material. P rophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form. M etaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle structure. A naphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes. T elophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched. C ytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell. M eiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two. Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction. Gametes in female = Egg Gametes in Male = Sperm Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote Z ygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction. 1. . Respiratory System • main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction. N asal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum. E xternal Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity T he Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production. E piglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus. L ungs -Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation. A lveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs. • Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse. B ronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs. B ronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli R ight Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively. L eft Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch – an indentation for the heart’s apex. T he Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement. • Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface. • Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall. • Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together. P erfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue. P ulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body. • Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs. • Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs. T idal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing. I nspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. E xpiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. R esidual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse. M edulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH. A sthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. C ystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections. 2. . Cardiovascular System H eart • Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity. • Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system • Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to L hip Heart Coverings • Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits. H eart Layers • Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium. • Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue forming the fibrous skele