SOCIOLOGY - SOCIAL CHANGE IN
MODERN SOCIETY
Sociological theories of social change
Social change has been defined by Wilbert Moore - social change is a significant alteration in structure over
time in behavior patterns and culture, including norms and values.
Humans - 5 lakh years --> agriculture - 12000 years --> civilized human - 6000 years --> changes - 400
years --> rapid changes - 100 years
Horton and Hunt - social change is change in social structure and social relationships of a society. They
differentiate between cultural change and social change even though both overlap at many times.
Lundberg - social change refers to any modification in established patterns of inter-human relationships
and standards of conduct.
Social Evolution - a universal movement from an indefinite unstable homogeneity to definite stable
heterogeneity. It is value loaded in terms of direction and structure (towards complexity). Evolution
expresses continuity and direction of change. It means more than growth. ‘Growth’ implies a direction
of change but essentially in size or quality. Evolution involves something more intrinsic, a change not only
in size but also of structure.
Progress (quantitative) - any change in existing environment that makes it easier for a person or a group
to live. Example: technology is considered an index of progress. Progress implies change in direction
towards some final desired goal. It involves a value judgement.
Development (qualitative) - desirable form of social change. It is value loaded in terms of proceeding in
a particular direction which is desired by the society and is planned. Example: FYPs
Change - value neutral. Represents only alteration. Change in the system is a quantitative change, change
of the system is a qualitative change.
Nature of social change:
Universal phenomenon, Community change and not individual change.
Speed is not uniform, Nature and speed is affected by and related to time factor.
Occurs as an essential law. May be as a result of natural course or planned efforts.
Definite prediction is not possible, Shows chain reaction sequence.
Results from an interaction of a number of factors.
Social changes are chiefly those of modification or of replacement.
In Ideational Stage, close people to people interaction takes place. I.e., it is community oriented in
which division of Labor is not prominent, people possess traditional values and society is simple and closed
type whereas, in Sensate stage, society is fragmented and people are highly individualistic; division
of Labor is prominent and skilled people drive society towards maturity
Sorokin theorization finds close proximity with Durkheim organic solidarity and mechanical solidarity and
Tonnies Gesellschafts and Gemeinschaft
Evolutionary Theories of Social Change:
They are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from simple beginnings into more
complex forms. View it as unilinear, progressive, gradual and beneficial.
LH Morgan upholds a materialistic conception of evolution. He believes that as human needs increase,
man innovates and develops technologies to satisfy those needs. With a dramatic change in technology, all
other dimensions of social life change. He mentions seven stages of technological development through
,which society has moved from savagery to barbarism to civilization.
August Comte upholds an ideational conception of evolution. He explains change as the outcome of
intellectual development. The three stages viewed by him were Theological, Metaphysical and Rational.
Herbert Spencer upholds a naturalistic conception of evolution. He views the society as an organism
(made of interconnected parts - the social institutions), and believes that like an organism, societies are also
characterized by a progressive increase in size. This increase is either due to internal factors like population
growth or due to external factors like migration, and results into an increase in differentiation and
integration. He examined certain stages which the societies in course of their evolution passed.
Simple society - herd or band Compound society - tribe and chiefdom
Doubly compound society - city state and kingdom
Trebly compound society - empire and modern nation-state
LT Hobhouse takes advancement in human knowledge as the chief indicator of development and presents
an evolutionary sequence of five stages:
Stage of preliterate societies
Stage of literacy and proto-science - Babylon,
China Stage of reflective thought - Vedic period
Stage of critical thought - Greece
Stage of modern science - from 16th century
Durkheim views social change as an evolution of a society from highly undifferentiated to differentiated.
This is a movement from a mechanical and simple society to an organic and complex society. The
increasing differentiation will eventually replace the mechanical solidarity with organic solidarity.
Lenski and Lenski - Some changes are cyclic and unpattern, but evolutionary process of cumulative change
is the predominant pattern. Cumulative changes occur in two ways - innovation and selection. Innovation
produces new variations and selection decides which variation should lead. Both these processes happen at
two levels - at the level of individual society and at the world system.
Critique:
Franz Boas opposes the view that universal laws govern all societies.
Have a value bias, and cynically label the simply societies as primitive or savage. May explain long term
ends but not changes on a smaller scale.
Do not explain significant differences between societies at the same level of evolution.
Stages of evolution are not fixed in reality; leapfrogging or backward movement is also possible. There can
be no final stage. It is always a value laden concept.
Lacks support of data.
Neo - Evolutionary Theory of Social Change:
Parsons builds his theory based on the model of biological theory of evolution. The fundamental principle
of evolution is the capacity for adaptation. This capacity depends upon two basic processes-
differentiation and integration, and change in culture is very important for both. According to Parsons,
cultural change accompanied by increasing differentiation is characterized by increasing generalization of
cultural values, which then helps in greater integration. Applying this model, he identified five stages of
evolution, according to increasing level of differentiation and integration:
Primitive society, like Australian aborigines
Archaic society like Mesopotamia
Historical society like China and India
Seedbed society like Greece
Modern society like USA, Europe
, He talks about evolutionary universals. If a civilization at a lower evolutionary stage adopts certain
evolutionary universals belonging to a higher stage, it can easily leap over one or more stages altogether.
Example: Europe was at a lower stage of evolution than India and China, but leapfrogged into modernity
after Enlightenment and Renaissance.
Conflict Theories of Social Change:
Law of Unity and Conflict of Opposites - there are internal sides, tendencies, forces of an object
or phenomena, which are mutually exclusive but at same time presuppose each other. Inseparable
interconnections of these opposite tendencies are responsible for the unity of opposites. This
contradictoriness is universal. The opposites coexist and one is inconceivable without other.
However, these opposites cannot coexist peacefully - their contradictory, mutually exclusive
character necessarily causes a struggle between them. It is important to note that unity of opposites
is a necessary condition of conflict, because it takes place only where opposite sides exist in one
object or phenomenon. This contradiction and conflict of opposites is the main source of
development of matter and consciousness. Development is thus, a struggle of these opposites.
The Law of Negation of the Negation - The history of society also consists of a chain of negations
of the old social order by the new. As Raymond Aron puts it, capitalism is the negation of feudal
society, and socialism would be the negation of capitalism, hence negation of negation.
The Law of Transition of Quantity into Quality - According to this law, process of change is not
simple or gradual but is a product of quantitative advances, which result in abstract qualitative
changes at a particular moment, when mature conditions are present. There is never a repetition of
occurrences. This change is always from lower to higher, simpler to complex and homogeneous to
heterogeneous levels of reality.
Coser in his book “the notion of power” speaks of positive consequences of conflict. He believes that
social solidarity within a group increases in face of conflict with other groups. This leads to an improved
understanding of opponent, and creates new avenues of interaction, and thus change in the group. It may
also give rise to some unchartered areas of co-operation between different parties. For example: the
emergence of the Red Cross during WWI. Conflict thus, can be functional, integral and may even lead
to innovation. example, it was urbanization that resulted in high cost of living and in town caused breaking
up over traditional joint family
Collins sees conflict as a struggle over legitimacy of authority relations. It is a constant feature of any
society, and hence social change as inevitable, as the interests of different groups are diverse.
Dahrendorf says that social conflict is ubiquitous, and hence social change is also ubiquitous. Every element
in the society renders some contribution in this disintegration and change. Every society is based on
coercion by few members, and this creates political conflict, which leads to change.
According to Gillen and Gillen, social change is a change in social relations caused by geographical,
cultural and economic factors. Example, a decrease in fertility among Indian women has resulted in social
change of increased participatory in labor force. however, change may not always be a welcoming
one. Conflict theorist believe social change was result of struggle of the oppressed.
V. Allen Further notes that social change through a conflict is initiated if the oppressed feel they would
be devoid justice under the incumbent regime. for example, the Workers Party of Brazil caused toppling of
‘Lula’ due to high unemployment and corruption
Hegel spoke of dialectical idealism as a source of social change.
Marx was inspired by this theory and modified it to dialectical materialism: Marx championed the
conflict theory and said economic deterministic nature leads to change. The proletariat is exploited by the
Bourgeoisie. It causes deprivation of the working class. Its sole aim is profit-maximization and these
oppressive forces change of class-in-itself to a class-for-itself. Marx says that “history of mankind is history
MODERN SOCIETY
Sociological theories of social change
Social change has been defined by Wilbert Moore - social change is a significant alteration in structure over
time in behavior patterns and culture, including norms and values.
Humans - 5 lakh years --> agriculture - 12000 years --> civilized human - 6000 years --> changes - 400
years --> rapid changes - 100 years
Horton and Hunt - social change is change in social structure and social relationships of a society. They
differentiate between cultural change and social change even though both overlap at many times.
Lundberg - social change refers to any modification in established patterns of inter-human relationships
and standards of conduct.
Social Evolution - a universal movement from an indefinite unstable homogeneity to definite stable
heterogeneity. It is value loaded in terms of direction and structure (towards complexity). Evolution
expresses continuity and direction of change. It means more than growth. ‘Growth’ implies a direction
of change but essentially in size or quality. Evolution involves something more intrinsic, a change not only
in size but also of structure.
Progress (quantitative) - any change in existing environment that makes it easier for a person or a group
to live. Example: technology is considered an index of progress. Progress implies change in direction
towards some final desired goal. It involves a value judgement.
Development (qualitative) - desirable form of social change. It is value loaded in terms of proceeding in
a particular direction which is desired by the society and is planned. Example: FYPs
Change - value neutral. Represents only alteration. Change in the system is a quantitative change, change
of the system is a qualitative change.
Nature of social change:
Universal phenomenon, Community change and not individual change.
Speed is not uniform, Nature and speed is affected by and related to time factor.
Occurs as an essential law. May be as a result of natural course or planned efforts.
Definite prediction is not possible, Shows chain reaction sequence.
Results from an interaction of a number of factors.
Social changes are chiefly those of modification or of replacement.
In Ideational Stage, close people to people interaction takes place. I.e., it is community oriented in
which division of Labor is not prominent, people possess traditional values and society is simple and closed
type whereas, in Sensate stage, society is fragmented and people are highly individualistic; division
of Labor is prominent and skilled people drive society towards maturity
Sorokin theorization finds close proximity with Durkheim organic solidarity and mechanical solidarity and
Tonnies Gesellschafts and Gemeinschaft
Evolutionary Theories of Social Change:
They are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from simple beginnings into more
complex forms. View it as unilinear, progressive, gradual and beneficial.
LH Morgan upholds a materialistic conception of evolution. He believes that as human needs increase,
man innovates and develops technologies to satisfy those needs. With a dramatic change in technology, all
other dimensions of social life change. He mentions seven stages of technological development through
,which society has moved from savagery to barbarism to civilization.
August Comte upholds an ideational conception of evolution. He explains change as the outcome of
intellectual development. The three stages viewed by him were Theological, Metaphysical and Rational.
Herbert Spencer upholds a naturalistic conception of evolution. He views the society as an organism
(made of interconnected parts - the social institutions), and believes that like an organism, societies are also
characterized by a progressive increase in size. This increase is either due to internal factors like population
growth or due to external factors like migration, and results into an increase in differentiation and
integration. He examined certain stages which the societies in course of their evolution passed.
Simple society - herd or band Compound society - tribe and chiefdom
Doubly compound society - city state and kingdom
Trebly compound society - empire and modern nation-state
LT Hobhouse takes advancement in human knowledge as the chief indicator of development and presents
an evolutionary sequence of five stages:
Stage of preliterate societies
Stage of literacy and proto-science - Babylon,
China Stage of reflective thought - Vedic period
Stage of critical thought - Greece
Stage of modern science - from 16th century
Durkheim views social change as an evolution of a society from highly undifferentiated to differentiated.
This is a movement from a mechanical and simple society to an organic and complex society. The
increasing differentiation will eventually replace the mechanical solidarity with organic solidarity.
Lenski and Lenski - Some changes are cyclic and unpattern, but evolutionary process of cumulative change
is the predominant pattern. Cumulative changes occur in two ways - innovation and selection. Innovation
produces new variations and selection decides which variation should lead. Both these processes happen at
two levels - at the level of individual society and at the world system.
Critique:
Franz Boas opposes the view that universal laws govern all societies.
Have a value bias, and cynically label the simply societies as primitive or savage. May explain long term
ends but not changes on a smaller scale.
Do not explain significant differences between societies at the same level of evolution.
Stages of evolution are not fixed in reality; leapfrogging or backward movement is also possible. There can
be no final stage. It is always a value laden concept.
Lacks support of data.
Neo - Evolutionary Theory of Social Change:
Parsons builds his theory based on the model of biological theory of evolution. The fundamental principle
of evolution is the capacity for adaptation. This capacity depends upon two basic processes-
differentiation and integration, and change in culture is very important for both. According to Parsons,
cultural change accompanied by increasing differentiation is characterized by increasing generalization of
cultural values, which then helps in greater integration. Applying this model, he identified five stages of
evolution, according to increasing level of differentiation and integration:
Primitive society, like Australian aborigines
Archaic society like Mesopotamia
Historical society like China and India
Seedbed society like Greece
Modern society like USA, Europe
, He talks about evolutionary universals. If a civilization at a lower evolutionary stage adopts certain
evolutionary universals belonging to a higher stage, it can easily leap over one or more stages altogether.
Example: Europe was at a lower stage of evolution than India and China, but leapfrogged into modernity
after Enlightenment and Renaissance.
Conflict Theories of Social Change:
Law of Unity and Conflict of Opposites - there are internal sides, tendencies, forces of an object
or phenomena, which are mutually exclusive but at same time presuppose each other. Inseparable
interconnections of these opposite tendencies are responsible for the unity of opposites. This
contradictoriness is universal. The opposites coexist and one is inconceivable without other.
However, these opposites cannot coexist peacefully - their contradictory, mutually exclusive
character necessarily causes a struggle between them. It is important to note that unity of opposites
is a necessary condition of conflict, because it takes place only where opposite sides exist in one
object or phenomenon. This contradiction and conflict of opposites is the main source of
development of matter and consciousness. Development is thus, a struggle of these opposites.
The Law of Negation of the Negation - The history of society also consists of a chain of negations
of the old social order by the new. As Raymond Aron puts it, capitalism is the negation of feudal
society, and socialism would be the negation of capitalism, hence negation of negation.
The Law of Transition of Quantity into Quality - According to this law, process of change is not
simple or gradual but is a product of quantitative advances, which result in abstract qualitative
changes at a particular moment, when mature conditions are present. There is never a repetition of
occurrences. This change is always from lower to higher, simpler to complex and homogeneous to
heterogeneous levels of reality.
Coser in his book “the notion of power” speaks of positive consequences of conflict. He believes that
social solidarity within a group increases in face of conflict with other groups. This leads to an improved
understanding of opponent, and creates new avenues of interaction, and thus change in the group. It may
also give rise to some unchartered areas of co-operation between different parties. For example: the
emergence of the Red Cross during WWI. Conflict thus, can be functional, integral and may even lead
to innovation. example, it was urbanization that resulted in high cost of living and in town caused breaking
up over traditional joint family
Collins sees conflict as a struggle over legitimacy of authority relations. It is a constant feature of any
society, and hence social change as inevitable, as the interests of different groups are diverse.
Dahrendorf says that social conflict is ubiquitous, and hence social change is also ubiquitous. Every element
in the society renders some contribution in this disintegration and change. Every society is based on
coercion by few members, and this creates political conflict, which leads to change.
According to Gillen and Gillen, social change is a change in social relations caused by geographical,
cultural and economic factors. Example, a decrease in fertility among Indian women has resulted in social
change of increased participatory in labor force. however, change may not always be a welcoming
one. Conflict theorist believe social change was result of struggle of the oppressed.
V. Allen Further notes that social change through a conflict is initiated if the oppressed feel they would
be devoid justice under the incumbent regime. for example, the Workers Party of Brazil caused toppling of
‘Lula’ due to high unemployment and corruption
Hegel spoke of dialectical idealism as a source of social change.
Marx was inspired by this theory and modified it to dialectical materialism: Marx championed the
conflict theory and said economic deterministic nature leads to change. The proletariat is exploited by the
Bourgeoisie. It causes deprivation of the working class. Its sole aim is profit-maximization and these
oppressive forces change of class-in-itself to a class-for-itself. Marx says that “history of mankind is history
