SOCIOLOGY - RELIGION AND SOCIETY
Sociological theories of religion
Religion is a cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense of ultimate
meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality that is sacred, all-encompassing and supernatural.
Functional definition by Yinger - Religion is a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group
of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life.
Substantive definition is concerned with the content of religion rather than its functions or purpose -
Durkheim defined religion in terms of a distinction between the sacred and the profane. Sacred objects
produce a sense of awe, veneration and respect, whereas profane objects do not.
Sociology v/s philosophy v/s theology of religion:
Sociology of religion does not ask, whether God exists. Rather, sociology of religion asks, if people Believe
that Gods exist, ‘why do they believe’, ‘how do they come to believe?’ ‘how do they describe their god?’
and is there any relationship between their description of god and their social conditions?’
Philosophy has many specializations like metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Metaphysics is, broadly
put, the study of the abstract. As a metaphysician, a philosopher of religion has to deduce arguments for
and against the existence of God. Epistemology is a study of the 'basis' of knowledge. Accordingly, as an
epistemologist, a philosopher of religion examines the possibility of knowing God through various means.
Theologians are necessarily believers. They believe in the existence of God (in whatever from it may be)
and try to understand the nature of divine beings by studying the faith of its believers. By analyzing the
people's experience of God, theologians try to understand God and God's plans.
Evolutionary Theory:
It is concerned about the origin of religion and its basic purpose.
Comte - three stages of evolution of any society sees theological as the first stage.
1st stage of his Law of 3 Stages was Theological (Supernatural Being)- it had 3 sub stages:
Fetishism (spirit is present in all inanimate things).
Polytheism - priests and Gods were formed for the first time.
Monotheism - single God, some form of rationality emerged for the first time.
2nd stage was Metaphysical - about abstract forces - Supernatural Power. 3rd stage was Positivism which
began with Enlightenment and FR.
,Religion originated from human consciousness to give answers to questions about the unknown. It served
to satisfy human inquisitiveness. With the advent of science, the very same questions will be explained and
answered differently. This renaissance led by science will lead to disappearance of religion from the society.
Thus, he sees an interlinkage between advancement of human consciousness, progress of human society
and displacement of religion with the rise of rationality.
Spencer – gave the “Ghost Theory” of religion. He believes that primitives got the idea of a person's
duality from dreams, which were considered as real-life experiences by them. They believed that the dream-
self moves about at night while the shadow-self acts by the day. This notion of duality is reinforced by
peoples' experiences of temporary loss of sensibilities and the permanent death. The idea of ghosts grew
into idea of God. Ghosts of ancestors were considered divine. Thus, ancestor worship is root of all
religions. Spencer views God and religion as the product of human fear. With the growth of science, man
develops the ability and confidence to face nature and its calamities. He is no more afraid of diseases or
disasters. He is able to manipulate nature. This will lead to loss of fear, and hence the decline of religion.
EB Tylor - he also views an evolutionary process and divides human history into three stages - magical,
religious and scientific. He believes that all three answer questions of the human mind, and each stage
represents a more developed human consciousness. It also shows a movement from a tribal society to a
medieval society and finally to a modern society. Animism.
James Frazer - He wrote about magical and religious practices in different cultures of the world. He talks
about two types of magic – Homeopathic Magic (driven by the “Law of Similarity’) and Contagious
Magic driven by the ‘Law of Contact’- example: Jumi women of Maoris are clean shaven so that no one
can steal their hair and use it for black magic). He believes that magic and science are not logically different,
rather science is an advancement of magic. Magic was also a means to coming to terms with the supernatural
and gaining control over the environment. Both are based on human consciousness and where magic ends,
science starts.
RH Lowie sees religion as a response to awe and amazement. Magic and emotion make religion, while
magic with no emotions makes science.
Merton commented upon the role of collective participation in the life of the tribal peoples, and the practices
that seemingly appeared non-rational in terms of cause and effect, certainly acquired a significance when
viewed in terms of their contribution to social solidarity. He thought this to be the latent function of
religion. Merton further wondered if functional alternatives could be developed for religion, and whether
communism itself shared the operational details of religious rituals.
He introduced the concept of dysfunction. Talking about religion, for instance, he pointed out the
,dysfunctional features of religion in a multi-religious society. In such a society religion, instead of bringing
about solidarity, could become the cause of disorganization and disunity.
Functionalist Perspective: - this perspective examines religion in terms of society’s needs. Society requires
a certain degree of social solidarity, value consensus, harmony and integration between its parts and religion
makes contributions to meeting such functional prerequisites.
Emile Durkheim: he stated that religion is primarily concerned with three kinds of activities:
maintaining a separation between sacred and profane,
laying down a system of beliefs for the faithful, and
setting up a system of rules that forbids certain ways of acting.
He defined religion "as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say,
things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a
Church, all those who adhere to them".
The sacred and the profane: In ‘The Elementary forms of Religious Life’, Durkheim argued that all
societies divide the world into two categories - the sacred and the profane. Religion is based upon this
division. It is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things - things that are set apart and
forbidden. A tree, a pebble, anything can be sacred. There is nothing about the particular qualities of these
things that make them sacred. Sacred things must be symbols, must represent something. The relationship
between sacred symbols and what they represent, helps to understand the role of religion in society.
Totemism: Durkheim called the religion of various clans of Australian Aborigines, totemism. It is the
simplest and most basic form of religion according to him. Each clan has a totem, usually a plant or an
animal. The Totem is a symbol of the clan and is represented by drawings or ‘churingas’ made on wood or
stone. However, the totem is also the most sacred object in Aborigine ritual. It is ‘the outward and visible
form of the totemic principle or God.
Durkheim argued that as the totem is at once the symbol of God and of the society, in worshipping God,
people are in fact worshipping society. Society is the real object of religious veneration. Sacred things are
considered superior in power to profane things, and particularly to man. Humans are inferior and dependent
on them. This relationship between humanity and sacred things is exactly the relationship between
humanity and society. Totems are used because it is easier for a person to visualize and direct his feelings
of awe towards a symbol then towards a complex thing like a clan.
“Religion and the collective Consciences”: Durkheim believed that social life was impossible without the
shared values and beliefs that form the collective conscience. In their absence, there would be no social
, order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation. In short, there would be no society. Religion
reinforces the collective conscience. Worship of the society, provides it with greater power to direct human
action. It recognizes the importance of the social group and man’s dependence upon it. Religion thus,
strengthens the unity of the group and promotes social solidarity. Durkheim also emphasized the importance
of collective worship.
Critique:
He studied only a small number of Aboriginal tribes; hence generalization may be incorrect; It is
more relevant to small, non-literate societies where there is a close integration of culture and social
institutions, and where members share a common belief and value system.
He overstates the degree to which the collective conscience permeates and shapes the behaviour of
the society, this is especially seen in multi-faith societies.
Overstress’s social order and continuity instead of social dynamism and transformation.
Gives no importance to individual and emotional needs of human beings in seeking religion.
Views religion as essentially reductionist, thus rejecting spirituality embedded in it.
Bronislaw Malinowski:
“Magic, Religion and Science” - His work in the Trobriand Islands provided him with insights on religion
in a small, non-literate society. Like Durkheim, he sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values and
promoting social solidarity. However, he does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole or religious
ritual as worship of society. He sees religion as being concerned with situations of emotional stress that
threaten social solidarity.
Religion and life crises: Anxiety and tension tend to disrupt social life. Situations that produce these
emotions include crises of life such as birth, puberty, marriage and death. Death is the most disruptive of
these events and Malinowski sees the comfort and support provided to the bereaved as a way to check their
emotions. It controls the stress and anxiety that might disrupt society. Death is socially destructive, and at
a funeral ceremony the social group unites to support the bereaved, and thus expresses social solidarity
which reintegrates society.
Religion, prediction and control: Events that cannot be fully controlled or predicted also produce tension
and anxiety. Malinowski noted that such events were surrounded by ritual, which he sees as a form of
religious practice. For example: When the Trobrianders went fishing in the calm waters of the lagoon,
where catch was easy and abundant, there were no rituals attached to it. However, when they went fishing
in the open sea, where the weather was uncertain and the catch was unpredictable, it was preceded by rituals
Sociological theories of religion
Religion is a cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense of ultimate
meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality that is sacred, all-encompassing and supernatural.
Functional definition by Yinger - Religion is a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group
of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life.
Substantive definition is concerned with the content of religion rather than its functions or purpose -
Durkheim defined religion in terms of a distinction between the sacred and the profane. Sacred objects
produce a sense of awe, veneration and respect, whereas profane objects do not.
Sociology v/s philosophy v/s theology of religion:
Sociology of religion does not ask, whether God exists. Rather, sociology of religion asks, if people Believe
that Gods exist, ‘why do they believe’, ‘how do they come to believe?’ ‘how do they describe their god?’
and is there any relationship between their description of god and their social conditions?’
Philosophy has many specializations like metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Metaphysics is, broadly
put, the study of the abstract. As a metaphysician, a philosopher of religion has to deduce arguments for
and against the existence of God. Epistemology is a study of the 'basis' of knowledge. Accordingly, as an
epistemologist, a philosopher of religion examines the possibility of knowing God through various means.
Theologians are necessarily believers. They believe in the existence of God (in whatever from it may be)
and try to understand the nature of divine beings by studying the faith of its believers. By analyzing the
people's experience of God, theologians try to understand God and God's plans.
Evolutionary Theory:
It is concerned about the origin of religion and its basic purpose.
Comte - three stages of evolution of any society sees theological as the first stage.
1st stage of his Law of 3 Stages was Theological (Supernatural Being)- it had 3 sub stages:
Fetishism (spirit is present in all inanimate things).
Polytheism - priests and Gods were formed for the first time.
Monotheism - single God, some form of rationality emerged for the first time.
2nd stage was Metaphysical - about abstract forces - Supernatural Power. 3rd stage was Positivism which
began with Enlightenment and FR.
,Religion originated from human consciousness to give answers to questions about the unknown. It served
to satisfy human inquisitiveness. With the advent of science, the very same questions will be explained and
answered differently. This renaissance led by science will lead to disappearance of religion from the society.
Thus, he sees an interlinkage between advancement of human consciousness, progress of human society
and displacement of religion with the rise of rationality.
Spencer – gave the “Ghost Theory” of religion. He believes that primitives got the idea of a person's
duality from dreams, which were considered as real-life experiences by them. They believed that the dream-
self moves about at night while the shadow-self acts by the day. This notion of duality is reinforced by
peoples' experiences of temporary loss of sensibilities and the permanent death. The idea of ghosts grew
into idea of God. Ghosts of ancestors were considered divine. Thus, ancestor worship is root of all
religions. Spencer views God and religion as the product of human fear. With the growth of science, man
develops the ability and confidence to face nature and its calamities. He is no more afraid of diseases or
disasters. He is able to manipulate nature. This will lead to loss of fear, and hence the decline of religion.
EB Tylor - he also views an evolutionary process and divides human history into three stages - magical,
religious and scientific. He believes that all three answer questions of the human mind, and each stage
represents a more developed human consciousness. It also shows a movement from a tribal society to a
medieval society and finally to a modern society. Animism.
James Frazer - He wrote about magical and religious practices in different cultures of the world. He talks
about two types of magic – Homeopathic Magic (driven by the “Law of Similarity’) and Contagious
Magic driven by the ‘Law of Contact’- example: Jumi women of Maoris are clean shaven so that no one
can steal their hair and use it for black magic). He believes that magic and science are not logically different,
rather science is an advancement of magic. Magic was also a means to coming to terms with the supernatural
and gaining control over the environment. Both are based on human consciousness and where magic ends,
science starts.
RH Lowie sees religion as a response to awe and amazement. Magic and emotion make religion, while
magic with no emotions makes science.
Merton commented upon the role of collective participation in the life of the tribal peoples, and the practices
that seemingly appeared non-rational in terms of cause and effect, certainly acquired a significance when
viewed in terms of their contribution to social solidarity. He thought this to be the latent function of
religion. Merton further wondered if functional alternatives could be developed for religion, and whether
communism itself shared the operational details of religious rituals.
He introduced the concept of dysfunction. Talking about religion, for instance, he pointed out the
,dysfunctional features of religion in a multi-religious society. In such a society religion, instead of bringing
about solidarity, could become the cause of disorganization and disunity.
Functionalist Perspective: - this perspective examines religion in terms of society’s needs. Society requires
a certain degree of social solidarity, value consensus, harmony and integration between its parts and religion
makes contributions to meeting such functional prerequisites.
Emile Durkheim: he stated that religion is primarily concerned with three kinds of activities:
maintaining a separation between sacred and profane,
laying down a system of beliefs for the faithful, and
setting up a system of rules that forbids certain ways of acting.
He defined religion "as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say,
things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a
Church, all those who adhere to them".
The sacred and the profane: In ‘The Elementary forms of Religious Life’, Durkheim argued that all
societies divide the world into two categories - the sacred and the profane. Religion is based upon this
division. It is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things - things that are set apart and
forbidden. A tree, a pebble, anything can be sacred. There is nothing about the particular qualities of these
things that make them sacred. Sacred things must be symbols, must represent something. The relationship
between sacred symbols and what they represent, helps to understand the role of religion in society.
Totemism: Durkheim called the religion of various clans of Australian Aborigines, totemism. It is the
simplest and most basic form of religion according to him. Each clan has a totem, usually a plant or an
animal. The Totem is a symbol of the clan and is represented by drawings or ‘churingas’ made on wood or
stone. However, the totem is also the most sacred object in Aborigine ritual. It is ‘the outward and visible
form of the totemic principle or God.
Durkheim argued that as the totem is at once the symbol of God and of the society, in worshipping God,
people are in fact worshipping society. Society is the real object of religious veneration. Sacred things are
considered superior in power to profane things, and particularly to man. Humans are inferior and dependent
on them. This relationship between humanity and sacred things is exactly the relationship between
humanity and society. Totems are used because it is easier for a person to visualize and direct his feelings
of awe towards a symbol then towards a complex thing like a clan.
“Religion and the collective Consciences”: Durkheim believed that social life was impossible without the
shared values and beliefs that form the collective conscience. In their absence, there would be no social
, order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation. In short, there would be no society. Religion
reinforces the collective conscience. Worship of the society, provides it with greater power to direct human
action. It recognizes the importance of the social group and man’s dependence upon it. Religion thus,
strengthens the unity of the group and promotes social solidarity. Durkheim also emphasized the importance
of collective worship.
Critique:
He studied only a small number of Aboriginal tribes; hence generalization may be incorrect; It is
more relevant to small, non-literate societies where there is a close integration of culture and social
institutions, and where members share a common belief and value system.
He overstates the degree to which the collective conscience permeates and shapes the behaviour of
the society, this is especially seen in multi-faith societies.
Overstress’s social order and continuity instead of social dynamism and transformation.
Gives no importance to individual and emotional needs of human beings in seeking religion.
Views religion as essentially reductionist, thus rejecting spirituality embedded in it.
Bronislaw Malinowski:
“Magic, Religion and Science” - His work in the Trobriand Islands provided him with insights on religion
in a small, non-literate society. Like Durkheim, he sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values and
promoting social solidarity. However, he does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole or religious
ritual as worship of society. He sees religion as being concerned with situations of emotional stress that
threaten social solidarity.
Religion and life crises: Anxiety and tension tend to disrupt social life. Situations that produce these
emotions include crises of life such as birth, puberty, marriage and death. Death is the most disruptive of
these events and Malinowski sees the comfort and support provided to the bereaved as a way to check their
emotions. It controls the stress and anxiety that might disrupt society. Death is socially destructive, and at
a funeral ceremony the social group unites to support the bereaved, and thus expresses social solidarity
which reintegrates society.
Religion, prediction and control: Events that cannot be fully controlled or predicted also produce tension
and anxiety. Malinowski noted that such events were surrounded by ritual, which he sees as a form of
religious practice. For example: When the Trobrianders went fishing in the calm waters of the lagoon,
where catch was easy and abundant, there were no rituals attached to it. However, when they went fishing
in the open sea, where the weather was uncertain and the catch was unpredictable, it was preceded by rituals
