CHAPTER 1 – HOW DO WE KNOW?
Chapter Summary
This chapter focused on how human beings attempt to understand the physical and
psychological world. After briefly reviewing the history of how human beings have tried
to understand their world (e.g., by comparing animism, mythology and religion, and
astrology), we discussed how psychology evolved out of such disciplines as
philosophy and physiology. Next, we discussed the four canons of science, that is,
the four basic assumptions about the world that virtually all scientists take as a given
(determinism, empiricism, parsimony, and testability). Finally, we discussed four
distinct “ways of knowing,” that is, four ways of trying to figure out what the world is
like. We point out, for example, that whereas political and religious systems place great
emphasis on authority and intuition as ways of knowing, scientific systems place more
stock in logic and observation. This explains, for instance, why scientific beliefs are
revised much more frequently than religious beliefs. Although the basic rules of science
are highly stable, this stable system of methods and procedures facilitates the revision of
beliefs based on new observations and discoveries.
Sample Answers for the Study Questions from the Textbook
1. What are positivism and empiricism? Why would a typical research
psychologist (i.e., a scientist) view these philosophical traditions as
progress away from metaphysical ways of knowing?
Positivism is a principle that states that human behavior should only be based on
observations that can be made with absolute certainty. Empiricism is the idea
that the best way to learn about the world is by making observations. A typical
research psychologist would view positivism and empiricism as progress away
from metaphysical ways of knowing because they are not based on assumptions.
Metaphysical ways of thinking are not objective, but making observations is an
important step in engaging in a science such as research psychology.
2. Raphael has a theory that adults who grew up as first-born children are
more likely to be outgoing than those who grew up as later-born
children. To test his theory, he gives a questionnaire to 200 students at
his college and asks them to report (a) whether they were first-born
children or later-born children and (b) the degree to which they
consider themselves outgoing. Is Raphael’s approach to acquiring
knowledge scientific? In answering this question, consider each of the
four canons of science and evaluate how Raphael’s approach measures
up on each of these dimensions. Can you think of any ways for Raphael
to make his birth-order analysis more scientific?
Raphael’s approach is not very scientific. It violates all of the four canons of
science. First, his study does not make use of the assumption of determinism. To
say that first-borns are likely to behave in a different way than later-borns makes
use of causality, which is not objective in nature. Second, although Raphael
attempts to measure the degree to which people identify themselves as outgoing,
, his methods lack empiricism. He is not making direct observations of their
behavior, so it is unknown how accurate the students’ responses are. Third,
although Raphael’s theory is simple, it does not explain why first-borns would be
more outgoing than later-borns.
It lacks parsimony because it does not explain why personalities should depend
on birth order. Finally, Raphael’s theory is not very testable. The main item that is
lacking is the operational definition of “outgoing”. Since he is asking students to
indicate to what degree they believe they are outgoing, this is a subjective type of
measurement. “Outgoing” to one student may mean something different than it
does to another. It is impossible to make comparisons unless the degrees of
outgoing are the same for everyone.
Raphael can make his birth-order analysis more scientific in several ways.
Without knowing each student’s birth order position, he should observe them
interacting in groups and make notes on their behaviors. He can define
“outgoing” by recording the number of times a person contributes an idea to the
group, engages in a conversation, etc. Rather than administer a questionnaire
that asks for the student’s own ranking of how outgoing he or she is, he could
use a personality test that asks questions about how often one sees friends each
week, how many times one makes phone calls to friends, etc.
3. Gloria has a theory that people who are born between July 23rd and
August 22nd (i.e., “Leos”) are more likely to be outgoing than people
who are born at other times of the year. In support of her theory, she
notes (a) that most of the Leos she knows are outgoing and (b) that
she is very good at correctly guessing the astrological sign of Leos
when she meets them. Is Gloria’s approach to knowledge acquisition
scientific? In answering this question, consider each of the four canons
of science and evaluate how Gloria’s approach measures up on each of
these dimensions. Can you think of any ways for Gloria to make her
astrological analysis more scientific?
Gloria’s approach to knowledge acquisition is not scientific. It violates all of the
four canons of science. First, she does not use determinism to test her theory.
She states that most Leos she knows are outgoing. However, it is possible that
most people that Gloria knows overall are outgoing. Correlating group
membership (being a Leo) with being outgoing is assumptive in nature and not
scientific. Second, Gloria’s way of acquiring knowledge is not empirical. Simply
thinking of the Leos that she knows and remembering them as outgoing is not an
observation. In addition, although she sometimes observes outgoing behavior
and then makes a guess that the person is a Leo, she does not allow her theory
to be disproved. She may have met many shy Leos and never realized it
because she neglected to ask them if they were a Leo. Third, Gloria’s theory is
simple, but it does not explain why Leos would be more outgoing than any other
astrological signs; therefore, it lacks parsimony. Finally, Gloria’s methods are not
testable. Although she is observing the behaviors of people that she meets, she
does not allow her methods to be falsifiable. Once she observes the outgoing
behaviors that she normally finds in Leos, she asks the person if he or she is a
Leo. This is not a scientific way to test her theory.
, There are a few ways in which Gloria can make her methods of testing more
scientific. First, she should define what types of behaviors in particular she
defines as “outgoing”. She needs an operational definition for the term. Also, she
should ask everyone that she meets if they are a Leo. That way, her theory
becomes more testable. The possibility of disproving the theory must be
available. For example, if most of the non-outgoing people she meets are also
Leos, she must abandon the idea that Leos are more outgoing and accept the
fact that she just happens to meet many people with July and August birthdays.
She should also objectively observe people rather than question them.
Gloria should observe how people interact in a group, rate each person’s level of
outgoingness, predict who is a Leo, and then ask them for their birth dates.
4. Although one of the tenets of science is that theories should be based
on observable events (empiricism), most of the constructs that
psychologists study are not visible to the naked eye. For instance, we
can’t directly observe a person’s true attitudes, beliefs, or thoughts.
How, then, can psychology be considered scientific? In answering this
question, carefully consider the role of logic, theory testing, and
operational definitions. (Note: Your answer to this question will become
more sophisticated after you read Chapter 2.)
Although psychology studies many unobservable phenomena, it is a science.
Psychology relies heavily on operational definitions that define abstract concepts.
For example, memory is an abstract psychological concept that has been studied
in depth. Depending on the study, “memory” can be defined as the number of
words a person can recall from a list, the number of faces one can recognize
after being exposed to them, etc. Logic is also an important factor in psychology.
Psychologists often rely on logical beliefs to help them study certain constructs.
For example, it is logical to state that a psychologist studying attraction would
look at people who are married vs. people who have just met. If people are
married, it is fair to infer that they are (or were at one time) attracted to each
other. Their behaviors towards their spouses would likely be different than the
interactions between the two people who have just met. Another way in which
psychology is scientific is through the testing of theories. Research psychologists
always look to disprove a theory before they accept it as being true. Theories in
combination with operational definitions allow studies to be replicated. If the
same results are not obtained after repeating an experiment, the theory is
discarded.
Testbank
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. A vague, mildly favorable personality description that most people would consider
highly self-descriptive is called:
A) a Rorschach portrayal
B) an intuitive personality portrait
C) an astrological reading
D) a Barnum description
, ANS: D REF: Introduction: What This Text Is About
2. According to the text, which of the following is NOT an example of a metaphysical
system?
A) animism
B) mythology
C) astrology
D) philosophy
ANS: D REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
3. The belief that natural phenomena (e.g., the sun, the wind) are alive is referred to as:
A) animism
B) paleoanthropism
C) primitivism
D) naive realism
ANS: A REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
4. Most people agree that __________ was the founder of experimental psychology.
A) Gustav Fechner
B) Carl Jung
C) Hermann von Helmholtz
D) Wilhelm Wundt
ANS: D REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
5. Metaphysical explanations violate:
A) common sense
B) established physical laws
C) logical rules of reasoning
D) conversational norms
ANS: B REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
6. As the term metaphysical is used in the text, metaphysical explanations for human
behavior are based on:
A) indirect observations of events
B) supernatural phenomena
C) philosophical reasoning
D) the scientific method
ANS: B REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
Chapter Summary
This chapter focused on how human beings attempt to understand the physical and
psychological world. After briefly reviewing the history of how human beings have tried
to understand their world (e.g., by comparing animism, mythology and religion, and
astrology), we discussed how psychology evolved out of such disciplines as
philosophy and physiology. Next, we discussed the four canons of science, that is,
the four basic assumptions about the world that virtually all scientists take as a given
(determinism, empiricism, parsimony, and testability). Finally, we discussed four
distinct “ways of knowing,” that is, four ways of trying to figure out what the world is
like. We point out, for example, that whereas political and religious systems place great
emphasis on authority and intuition as ways of knowing, scientific systems place more
stock in logic and observation. This explains, for instance, why scientific beliefs are
revised much more frequently than religious beliefs. Although the basic rules of science
are highly stable, this stable system of methods and procedures facilitates the revision of
beliefs based on new observations and discoveries.
Sample Answers for the Study Questions from the Textbook
1. What are positivism and empiricism? Why would a typical research
psychologist (i.e., a scientist) view these philosophical traditions as
progress away from metaphysical ways of knowing?
Positivism is a principle that states that human behavior should only be based on
observations that can be made with absolute certainty. Empiricism is the idea
that the best way to learn about the world is by making observations. A typical
research psychologist would view positivism and empiricism as progress away
from metaphysical ways of knowing because they are not based on assumptions.
Metaphysical ways of thinking are not objective, but making observations is an
important step in engaging in a science such as research psychology.
2. Raphael has a theory that adults who grew up as first-born children are
more likely to be outgoing than those who grew up as later-born
children. To test his theory, he gives a questionnaire to 200 students at
his college and asks them to report (a) whether they were first-born
children or later-born children and (b) the degree to which they
consider themselves outgoing. Is Raphael’s approach to acquiring
knowledge scientific? In answering this question, consider each of the
four canons of science and evaluate how Raphael’s approach measures
up on each of these dimensions. Can you think of any ways for Raphael
to make his birth-order analysis more scientific?
Raphael’s approach is not very scientific. It violates all of the four canons of
science. First, his study does not make use of the assumption of determinism. To
say that first-borns are likely to behave in a different way than later-borns makes
use of causality, which is not objective in nature. Second, although Raphael
attempts to measure the degree to which people identify themselves as outgoing,
, his methods lack empiricism. He is not making direct observations of their
behavior, so it is unknown how accurate the students’ responses are. Third,
although Raphael’s theory is simple, it does not explain why first-borns would be
more outgoing than later-borns.
It lacks parsimony because it does not explain why personalities should depend
on birth order. Finally, Raphael’s theory is not very testable. The main item that is
lacking is the operational definition of “outgoing”. Since he is asking students to
indicate to what degree they believe they are outgoing, this is a subjective type of
measurement. “Outgoing” to one student may mean something different than it
does to another. It is impossible to make comparisons unless the degrees of
outgoing are the same for everyone.
Raphael can make his birth-order analysis more scientific in several ways.
Without knowing each student’s birth order position, he should observe them
interacting in groups and make notes on their behaviors. He can define
“outgoing” by recording the number of times a person contributes an idea to the
group, engages in a conversation, etc. Rather than administer a questionnaire
that asks for the student’s own ranking of how outgoing he or she is, he could
use a personality test that asks questions about how often one sees friends each
week, how many times one makes phone calls to friends, etc.
3. Gloria has a theory that people who are born between July 23rd and
August 22nd (i.e., “Leos”) are more likely to be outgoing than people
who are born at other times of the year. In support of her theory, she
notes (a) that most of the Leos she knows are outgoing and (b) that
she is very good at correctly guessing the astrological sign of Leos
when she meets them. Is Gloria’s approach to knowledge acquisition
scientific? In answering this question, consider each of the four canons
of science and evaluate how Gloria’s approach measures up on each of
these dimensions. Can you think of any ways for Gloria to make her
astrological analysis more scientific?
Gloria’s approach to knowledge acquisition is not scientific. It violates all of the
four canons of science. First, she does not use determinism to test her theory.
She states that most Leos she knows are outgoing. However, it is possible that
most people that Gloria knows overall are outgoing. Correlating group
membership (being a Leo) with being outgoing is assumptive in nature and not
scientific. Second, Gloria’s way of acquiring knowledge is not empirical. Simply
thinking of the Leos that she knows and remembering them as outgoing is not an
observation. In addition, although she sometimes observes outgoing behavior
and then makes a guess that the person is a Leo, she does not allow her theory
to be disproved. She may have met many shy Leos and never realized it
because she neglected to ask them if they were a Leo. Third, Gloria’s theory is
simple, but it does not explain why Leos would be more outgoing than any other
astrological signs; therefore, it lacks parsimony. Finally, Gloria’s methods are not
testable. Although she is observing the behaviors of people that she meets, she
does not allow her methods to be falsifiable. Once she observes the outgoing
behaviors that she normally finds in Leos, she asks the person if he or she is a
Leo. This is not a scientific way to test her theory.
, There are a few ways in which Gloria can make her methods of testing more
scientific. First, she should define what types of behaviors in particular she
defines as “outgoing”. She needs an operational definition for the term. Also, she
should ask everyone that she meets if they are a Leo. That way, her theory
becomes more testable. The possibility of disproving the theory must be
available. For example, if most of the non-outgoing people she meets are also
Leos, she must abandon the idea that Leos are more outgoing and accept the
fact that she just happens to meet many people with July and August birthdays.
She should also objectively observe people rather than question them.
Gloria should observe how people interact in a group, rate each person’s level of
outgoingness, predict who is a Leo, and then ask them for their birth dates.
4. Although one of the tenets of science is that theories should be based
on observable events (empiricism), most of the constructs that
psychologists study are not visible to the naked eye. For instance, we
can’t directly observe a person’s true attitudes, beliefs, or thoughts.
How, then, can psychology be considered scientific? In answering this
question, carefully consider the role of logic, theory testing, and
operational definitions. (Note: Your answer to this question will become
more sophisticated after you read Chapter 2.)
Although psychology studies many unobservable phenomena, it is a science.
Psychology relies heavily on operational definitions that define abstract concepts.
For example, memory is an abstract psychological concept that has been studied
in depth. Depending on the study, “memory” can be defined as the number of
words a person can recall from a list, the number of faces one can recognize
after being exposed to them, etc. Logic is also an important factor in psychology.
Psychologists often rely on logical beliefs to help them study certain constructs.
For example, it is logical to state that a psychologist studying attraction would
look at people who are married vs. people who have just met. If people are
married, it is fair to infer that they are (or were at one time) attracted to each
other. Their behaviors towards their spouses would likely be different than the
interactions between the two people who have just met. Another way in which
psychology is scientific is through the testing of theories. Research psychologists
always look to disprove a theory before they accept it as being true. Theories in
combination with operational definitions allow studies to be replicated. If the
same results are not obtained after repeating an experiment, the theory is
discarded.
Testbank
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. A vague, mildly favorable personality description that most people would consider
highly self-descriptive is called:
A) a Rorschach portrayal
B) an intuitive personality portrait
C) an astrological reading
D) a Barnum description
, ANS: D REF: Introduction: What This Text Is About
2. According to the text, which of the following is NOT an example of a metaphysical
system?
A) animism
B) mythology
C) astrology
D) philosophy
ANS: D REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
3. The belief that natural phenomena (e.g., the sun, the wind) are alive is referred to as:
A) animism
B) paleoanthropism
C) primitivism
D) naive realism
ANS: A REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
4. Most people agree that __________ was the founder of experimental psychology.
A) Gustav Fechner
B) Carl Jung
C) Hermann von Helmholtz
D) Wilhelm Wundt
ANS: D REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
5. Metaphysical explanations violate:
A) common sense
B) established physical laws
C) logical rules of reasoning
D) conversational norms
ANS: B REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
6. As the term metaphysical is used in the text, metaphysical explanations for human
behavior are based on:
A) indirect observations of events
B) supernatural phenomena
C) philosophical reasoning
D) the scientific method
ANS: B REF: A Brief History of Human Knowledge
