MFG 202 Exam # 2

Ch. 34 Scientific Awakening Commonly called the Scientific Revolution Roughly Science was originally called natural philosophy Revolution in thinking and methodology (experimenting) Laid basis for modern view of the world as a rational ordered place Shifted the nature of discourse from reason (deductive) to empirical (inductive) Influence felt in government, commerce, philosophy, education and ordinary discourse Science seeks to understand what nature is like Technology seeks to manipulate the world for human benefit Aristotelian Universe Method: Deductive logic (proceed from a few basic premises, use logic to find the truth) Motion: Rest is natural, everything seeks its natural state Matter: Earth, Air, Fire, Water (everything made as a combination of these 4 elements) Heaven & Earth: The heavens are different stuff from Earth - light, airy, and perfect (fifth element=quintessence) Location of planets and stars: Earth is the center of the universe, stars are on progressively higher crystalline spheres (stars are all on the same sphere) *Copernicus Created the Model of the Sun as the center of the universe Circular orbits around the Sun Common sense seemed to contradict Scriptures seemed to contradict Tycho Brahe revised Copernican model, All planets, but earth, revolve around the sun Johannes Kepler Laws of Planetary Motion, Orbits are ellipses *Galileo Italian Mathematician and astronomer Father of Science (Empiricist) Challenged Aristotles Scientific Method Improved Telescopes Linked science and math with observation *Francis Bacon English Scientist and Father of the Scientific revolution Inductive (Scientific) Method Argued for experimentation Avoid Idols Bacon's Idols Idols of the Tribe: Human tendency to perceive things from a finite and fallible perspective. Idols of the Cave: Individual weaknesses in reasoning due to particular personalities, likes and dislikes. Idols of the Marketplace: Ways of understanding and using language that are dictated by culture and society. Idols of the Theatre: Accepted philosophical systems that are flawed. Bacon is referring to the influence of major philosophers (Aristotle) and major religions on science. Bacon's Truths 1. Sensory perception (empirical knowledge) is more reliable in examining the world than pure logic or theology. 2. Use manipulation of the world (experimentation) instead of just observation. 3. The principle of cause and effect is inviolate, we can know cause and effect. 4. Theory should be developed after the experiments were interpreted. 5. Inductive reasoning is given precedence over deductive reasoning. 6. Interpretation of data must be unbiased. 7. Well supported and accepted theories become laws. *Descartes French Philosopher and Father of analytical Geometry Spacial relationships can be expressed in math formulas Theoretical Science, Reductionism Rationalist Reductionism Reducing the problem to smaller and smaller levels until problem can be solved *Newton English Scientist known as "the greatest scientist ever" Wrote Principia Mathematica, which applied laws to the universe Invented Calculus to prove gravity Three Laws of Motion Laws of Optics Laws of Fluid Flow Introduced Mathematical Modeling Three great interests were Science, Alchemy, and Theology *Lavoisier Father of Modern Chemistry Quantification of experiments, hold results until proven several times Ch. 35 Age of Enlightenment "Age of Reason" principles of science applied to humans Progressive, rational, humanistic worldview spokesman= rising middle class Enlightenment and Religion Reason supersedes faith Distrust of traditional and organized religion Society is better as science guides humankind Humans are naturally good Focus on the good life here and now Deism "Scientific Religion" No church, No scripture, No set beliefs Universe is governed by laws God established God is distant, little interaction with mankind Anti clerical and skeptical of organized religion Expected ethical, enlightened behavior of all people English Enlightenment Critics could speak openly about government Thomas Hobbes English political philosopher Learned science from Galileo and believed in matter Nothing can exist without being made out of matter Wrote Government (Leviathan) In the beginning God sent Monarchs to help control mankind John Locke English Politician, writer, and scientist Helped orchestrate the Glorious Revolution In the beginning mankind entered into a "social contract", Man agreed to give up freedoms to protect life, liberty, and property, if Government no longer protects these basic rights it can be removed Rule of Law matters Edward Gibbon English thinker that criticized christianity in politics Wrote Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Anti-religous bias Alexander Pope Writer, Poet, and Playwright Criticized the English people and the Enlightenment to a degree We should avoid taking knowledge too far Wrote the Essay on Man and Essay on Criticism French Enlightenment- More dangerous to talk openly about government and politics The Philosophes French name for philosopher, enlightenment intellectuals Believed in inevitability of progress Ignoring superstition in religion Voltaire French Philosopher and Deist Very Critical of the Catholic Church and organized religion Leader of French enlightenment Wrote Candide Candide Written about why there is suffering of good people Came from the large earthquake in Lisbon and Voltaires questioning God Voltaire came to the conclusion there was no God Jean Jacques Rousseau French Thinker Wrote Social Contract about early mankind and government Noble Savage= instinctive goodness Mankind eventually was corrupted by civilization Ch. 36 Enlightened Despots title of rulers who attempt to adopt Enlightenment principles Frederick II of Prussia Ruler of Prussia as it came into power went to military school but was really interested in music and the arts Ran away from home but was caught and imprisoned by his Father Was married but had no children Became a military Conqueror, seven years war, partition of Poland etc Fostered the arts and composed 100 sonatas and 4 symphonies Wrote an anti-Machiavellian book Built a large baroque palace, Sans Souci in Potsdam Understood many languages and had a life-long correspondence with Voltaire Russia Romanov family united people in Russian area Descendants of Roman Empire Ivan IV (The Terrible) Czar during the late 1500's Established Moscow as the Capital Acquired Ukraine and Siberia Built St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow in celebration of victory at Kazan Peter the Great Czar that westernized Russia Visited Europe and changed Russian court language to French and encouraged European fashions Built a Navy modeled after the Dutch Navy Built a new capital in St. Petersburg closer to Europe and Sea routes Catherine II of Russia German Princess that married Peter III Czar of Russia and later became Czarina of Russia Coup was started by military and she received support from church and military and Peter was killed Initiated many reforms in Russia like open press, ending serfdom and sponsorship of art Built the "Winter Palace" in St. Petersburg Suppresses Pugachev's rebellion and never supports reform of serfs again Fought many wars including the partition of Poland Maria Theresa Empress of Austria Built the Schonbrunn Palace was the real ruler during the reign of her husband and Son Joseph II Joseph II Emperor of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor Freed the serfs, Increased freedom of the press, enacted equal protection, and required all males to be educated Enlightened Despots vs. Absolute Monarchs Accepted change to improve country, Economic reform, Sought advice Ch. 37 Classical and Rococo Style ... Baroque divided into Rococo and Classical around 1750 Rococo art style aimed at the wealthy class Light & frivolous, Lifestyles of the rich Picnics, lovers, outdoor settings Greek gods (especially cupids) Portraits Ornamentation (like Baroque) without the drama or heavy religious tone Pastel colors, white & gold Jean Antione Watteau French Rococo Painter "Pilgrimage to Cythera" "The Delights of Life" Jean Honore Fragonard French Rococo Painter "The Swing" Thomas Gainsborough English Painter "Mary Countess Howe" "Blue Boy" Rococo Architecture ... Wieskirche Church German church with an extremely ornate Altar Church of Our Lady Ettal Rococo church in Germany Asamkirche- Rococo church in Munich Germany Classical Style (Neoclassical) Return of the style of ancient Greece and Rome Clear, accessible themes Carefully wrought and balanced forms Artistic restrain and good taste Rules are valued and strictly adhered to Rules and Form Music for the common man made it more important to follow rules Jaques Louis David French Classical Painter before, during, and after French Revolution "Oath of Horatii" "Napolean Crossing the Alps" "Napolean in His Study" Classical Sculpture and Architecture mostly in the United States Horatio Greenough "Washington" Statue Capitol Building Monticello Music of the Classical Began at the Death of Bach (1750) and ends halfway through Beethovens life (1805) Written for the middle class Non-sophisticated listener Simple and Melodic Themes Played in Large Rooms Movements have beginning, middle, end Easier to play Viennese Classical Style dedication to form from Germany, but strong melody from Italy Sonata Allegro Form- Usually the 1st and Fourth Movement of a Symphony Exposition, Development, Recapitulation, and Coda Within Exposition and Recapitulation there is 1st theme, Bridge, 2nd Theme and Cadence Theme Joseph Haydn Composer and mentor to Mozart and Beethoven Popularizes the symphony, included jokes in his symphonies Wrote at least 104 symphonies Mozart Composer who began composing before age 5 Life of depression and creativity Went to vienna but struggled economically Later Symphonies considered his best, last 10 years Composed many musical pieces and was a brilliant composer Beethoven famous composer who supported his family as a child Scholarship to Vienna to study music and was taught by Hayden Made the piano popular Wrote Classical and later Romantic music Was becoming deaf, and going through depression when he wrote Moonlight Sonata Last Symphony was the 9th Symphony: Ode to Joy which was written after he was completely deaf Ch. 38 The American Revolution ... Seven Years War (French and Indian War) war fought in the 1760's between Britain and France Caused increased taxation on the colonies to pay for the war Issues Provoking Revolt ... Proclamation of 1763 Englands King George forbade colonists to settle west of the Appalachian Mountains Resented and Ignored Sugar Act of 1764 placed a 3 cent tax on each gallon of molasses from outside the British Empire Invisible tax paid only at point of entry, only a mild concern Stamp Act of 1765- Required colonists to pay for tax stamps on various legal documents Direct tax on the people, greatly concerned the people "No taxation without representation" wasn't really true because they didn't want representation in parliament Parliament abolished act in 1766 because of protests Townshend Acts of 1767 duty on imported goods including glass, lead, paint, tea, and paper Americans responded by smuggling in non-british goods Tea Act of 1773 Subsidized East India Trade Company to sell tea below the price of smuggled tea and still keep the tax This led to the boston tea party Boston Tea Party Patriots led by Samuel Adams raided british ships and dumped out the tea into the harbor Intolerable Acts of 1774 Response to the Boston Tea Party Closed Boston's harbor until colonists paid for destroyed tea Massachusetts' Legislature stripped of authority and military governor General Thomas Gage is appointed British soldiers occupied Boston First Continental Congress of 1774 Congress in Philadelphia in response to the intolerable acts Attended by representatives from all colonies except Georgia Decided to stop trade with Britain unless Acts were abolished Advised colonists to prepare for war Lexington and Concord British Soldiers sent to destroy an arms cache, a small skirmish occurred in Lexington The famous "shot heard round the world" American minutemen shot into the british lines on Concord Bridge and British go back to Boston Second Continental Congress 1775 Created a continental army, George Washington chosen as General Attempted reconciliation with Britain Elections held to gain more support for independence Elections of 1776 Pamphlets and propaganda sent out to sway people in favor of independence "Common Sense" Pamphlets written by Thomas Pain to support Independence Second Continental Congress 1776 Government of Revolutionary America Pro-Independence delegates chosen in each colony Proposal to draft a declaration of Independence Declaration of Independence 1776 Document declaring Independence drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson Revised and improved by a committee led by Benjamin Franklin made it easier to understand War of Independence alex came in Revolutionary War- Americans won because of many reasons Veteran's of French & Indian war Home-court advantage Familiarity with opposition Guerilla warfare tactics Long supply lines from Great Britain (6-week turnaround on communication) A few outstanding victories (Trenton, Saratoga) French support (military and political) Some British were apathetic or even sympathizers Americans were passionate Large theater of war (New England to Georgia) Battle of Yorktown last major battle of the war won by Washington and French Navy, Britain lost and Cornwallis surrendered Treaty of Paris 1783 Ended the War but Britain never really left America until War of 1812 George Washington General of Continental army and later became 1st President of the United States Respected by all sides Articles of Confederation Governing documents that were not very effective because they required a unanimous vote among all 13 colonies U.S. Constitution Ratified September 17, 1787 Replaced Articles of Confederation Bill of Rights added December 15, 1791, becoming the first 10 amendments James Madison, "the Father of the Constitution" Great Compromises Efficiency vs checks balances States rights versus federal power Power of the majority versus rights of the minority Slavery Limited to the South Not solved delayed, led to the Civil War Alexis de Tocqueville American revolution stemmed from desire for freedom Principled, Rule of law Freedom of press Religion is active but none dominates (religious diversity) American attitude: get it done Men and women: equal but different Ch. 39 French Revolution ... First Stage: Moderates Began with King's failed attempts to increase taxes Nobility angry because not consulted King calls the Estates General to get taxes Estates General (3 Estates) was the parliament of France but hadn't been held in 175 years 3 Estates were Church, Nobility, and Commoners All legislation required approval by majority of Estates Walk out by 3rd Estates and formed National Assembly National Assembly Formed by 3rd estate in an indoor tennis court King ordered entire Estates General to meet with the National Assembly Formed Municipal government for Paris to control chaos Attack on the Bastille July 14, 1789 Municipal government went to get arms from Kings Guards Killed the guards and took the weapons war on the streets, defacing/beheading of church statues Women peasants march on Versailles but are persuaded not to fight Actions of National Assembly Moderates controlled the Assembly Issued the Destruction of Privilege removing tax exemption, etc. from nobility Ratified the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on 26 Aug, 1789. New constitution reorganized government (constitutional monarchy) Any land owner could now vote Took over the properties, churches and priest appointments from Catholic church Louis XVI Attempted to flee to Austria to get an army but was captured Austria, England & Prussia declared war on France to keep revolution from spreading Second Stage Reign of Terror Radicals came into power Committee for Public Safety led by Maximelian Robespierre and Jacobians Many Reforms: metric system, new calendar, universal suffrage, slavery eliminated, land redistribution Guillotine: King and Queen, entire Ancien Regime, any opposed to revolution, 20,000 tried and executed in 1 yr Couldn't solve the hunger and political problems and the second stage ended Third Stage: Return of the Moderates moderates come back into power but had a lot of problems Adoption of new constitution and Rule by the Directory (Group of moderates act as executive, not effective) Invite Napoleon to be consul Napoleon Bonaparte became a general in the french revolutionist army in the wars vs. Prussia, England, and Austria Was very successful in the wars and the people loved him Appointed First Consul in 1799 by the Directory First Consul had many successes as the Consul Code of Napoleon Bank of France Centralized state government Relations with Catholic Church Education system (compulsory) Support of science Emperor French senate made him their emperor Conquered much of Western Europe Tried to conquer Russia but his army was wiped out Forced to abdicate the throne and exiled to Elba Comes back for 100 days but is then defeated at the battle of Waterloo Finally dies in exile on the island of St. Helena Congress of Vienna Restructuring Europe after Napoleon Guiding principles: Return to absolutism, Seeking for stability France returned to Bourbon control but had continuing problems Ch. 40 Romantic Era Artists emphasized personal message Emotion rather than reason Forms modified to fit content Nationalism Stories depicted Nature viewed mystically Exoticism (foreign culture, occult) Love of the past versus the future The Romantic Artist Personal feelings of the artist became critically important The artist needed to suffer to be fully empowered The starving artist became idealized Music departure from the neoclassical era Message in the music Romantic music is felt not reasoned Underlying theme carried throughout the symphony Folk songs incorporated for nationalism Longer symphonies and bigger Orchestras Use of Strong Dynamics Virtuosos were technical artists Beethoven Bridged classical and romantic periods Manifested Romantic ideal Franz Schubert German Composer that told stories in music Composed "Erkonig" Frederic Chopin Polish born composer in Paris Wrote short pieces in small rooms ex: "Minute Waltz" Virtuoso, technical composer Polish themes Franz Liszt Hungarian child prodigy Greatest Showman "Hungarian Rhjapsody 2" Richard Wagner Great German Opera composer Did many operas for Ludwig II at his castle Pionered the Leitmotif element of music, theme for specific character ex: Darth Vader Peter Ilych Tchaikovsky Russian composer that used the french style Wrote primarily for ballets Ex: "Nutcracker", "Sleeping Beauty", "Romeo and Juliet" Russian "Handful" 5 Russian composers that used Russian themes Moussorgsky,Balakirev, Borodin, Cui, Rimsky-Korsakov "Russian Eastern Overture," "Flight of the Bumble Bee," and "Night on Bald Mountain" Giuseppe Verdi Greatest Italian opera composer Orchestra is an important component of Italian opera "Rigoletto," "Aida," and "La Traviata" Art ... Francisco Goya Spanish artist and royal painter "3rd of May 1808," "Saturn Devouring His Son" Eugene Delacroix French artist "Liberty Leading the People," "The Death of Sardanapalus" Joseph Mallord William Turner English Painter "The Fighting Temeraire," "The Slave Ship" John Constable English Artist "Hay Wain" focused on the landscape Literature-... Johan Wolfgang Van Goethe German writer the raised the level of German literature "The Sorrows of Young Werther," "Faust" Sir Walter Scott English Writer of Historical scenes with made-up characters "Ivanhoe," "Lady of the Lake" Leo Tolstoy Russian Writer "War and Peace," "Anna Karenina" Victor Hugo French writer and politician "Les Miserables," "Hunchback of Notre Dame" Alexandre Dumas English Writer that imitated the style of Scott "Count of Monte Cristo," "The Three Muskateers," "The Man in the Iron Mask" Poets ... Lord Byron Art was an inner expression "Childe Harold" "The Flying Dutchman" "The Wandering Jew" Percy Bysshe Shelley English poet Strongly liberal Friends with Lord Byron Married Mary Wollstonecraft "Frankenstein" Ch. 41 Industrial Revolution Machines coordinated to make goods changed all aspects of society Consumer Society Wide variety of products Economies based on manufacturing Population shifts to urban areas Conditions Required Raw materials for goods and energy Population supply for industrial work Demand Investment capital, stock companies Laissez-faire economic policies Merchant respectability Presence of innovators willing to do it Limited liability corporations England Origin of the Industrial Revolution No civil strife, Government favored trade, Large, innovative middle class, Island geography (trade), Mobile population, Everyone lived within 20 miles of navigable river, Tradition of experimental science, Weak guilds, Coal supply Textiles the first major successful industrial revolution process Growing/Harvesting= Slaves Fiber Separation= Cotton Gin Spinning= Spinning Jenny Weaving= Lever Actuated Flying Shuttle, Power Loom Cutting/Sewing Transportation= Factory Richard Arkwright Created the first Spinning and Weaving Factory This was the beginning of the industrial revolution Power Began with Animal power Water Power Coal and Steam Power Energy and Transportation Began with wagons or carts Canals Railroads Englands Stagnation English manufacturers sold to their empire at a protected price Germany and the U.S. had to compete to get business, Continuous improvement drove their manufacturing Manufacturing Negatives Poor working/housing conditions Child labor Rapid urban growth outpaced city infrastructure Technology Short term: A technology is introduced to solve a problem in society Medium term: Problems with the technology become evident Long term: The technology is changed to correct the problems Ch. 42 Liberalism and Conservatism ... Conservatives Owners/landholders (capitalists/gentry) Classical Liberals Non-landed middle class and white collar workers (Bourgeoisie) Radical Liberals Factory and trade workers (Proletariat) Political parties began with the Glorious Revolution Whigs supported limited monarchy (Classical liberals) Tories supported strong monarchy (conservatives) Liberal Core Beliefs 1. Man has the ability to reason 2. Mankind can create a perfect society 3. Rule of law is necessary Conservative Core Beliefs 1. Man is fallen and does not improve when left to his own devices 2. Perfect society can't be created 3. Rule of the Strong and wise is needed Conservatism divided into two major groups: Traditionalists (Support status quo), and Reactionaries (want to go back to pre-revolution times) Rejection of intellectualism and Enlightenment ideals Adoption of values like religion, individualism, and Heritage Reluctant to change Classical Liberalism Favored changes in social and economic policies Government seen as the vehicle for change Focus on minorities and their rights Whigs then Liberals then Labor party in Britain Revolutions of 1848 "Successful" revolutions in all continental European countries then Monarchies returned after 6 months Liberal Poets/Novelists writings aimed at complacent middle class Charles Dickens Wrote about social conditions and individual complacency Oliver Twist (Orphans) Christmas Carol (Greedy Rich) Bleak House (Pollution) Great Expectations (Classes) Hard Times (Utilitarianism) Jane Austen wrote against classes "Pride and Prejudice" Utilitarianism Government is an agent for change and should provide the greatest amount of utility Greatest happiness for largest population Mankind seeks pleasure and flees pain Science and technology should be used to solve society's problems Use of Moral Calculus, to see if the greatest amount of utility is achieved Thomas Malthus Wrote about the idea that population will outgrow resources, this affected many later political writers Karl Marx German political writer who wrote the "Communist Manifesto", and "Das Kapital" Communist Manifesto 1.History of world is driven by class struggles 2.One class always exploits others 3.The Middle Class (bourgeoisie) triumphed over the upper class in the 18th Century 4.The Worker Class (proletariat) will triumph over the Middle Class (with revolution as the method) Das Kapital 1.The value of a product is the amount of labor to produce it. 2.The fair wage for a worker is the value of his work (the value of the product). 3.Capitalism, the owner must sell the product for more than the worker is paid (profit). 4.The capitalist increases profits by increasing selling price or reducing wages. 5.The lowest possible wage is the subsistence level and this is the level paid (because of a surplus of labor) 6.Surplus labor is maintained by replacing workers with machines. Communism Put the means of production (ownership of the factories, etc.) in the hands of the workers so they won't be exploited by owners All own all in common and All contribute A temporary central government oversees this transition from a capitalist society Eventually a utopian brotherhood where all needs are met is established and the government dissolves