Personality Theory
Module I
Introduction
- Nature of personality theory: Present status
- Nature and Nurture debate
- Basic measurements of personality
Nature and Nurture Debate
The nature versus nurture debate basically relates to the relative importance of an individual’s inherent traits
versus the personal experiences that lead to individual differences in physical and behavioural traits.
Some scientists are of the view that genetic predispositions or even animal instincts are the push factors behind
people’s behaviour. Others believe that the way one behaves is directly dependent upon the manner in which the
person has been taught to behave. The former is known as the “nature” theory of human behaviour whereas the
latter is termed as the “nurture” theory of human behaviour. Sir Francis Galton was fascinated by the idea of
genetic pre-programming and tried to uncover the predestined ways of human beings. However, many of his
experiments proved ill-conceived but yet his contribution has been vital to the study of personality issues. The
technique of finger printing and the Word Association Test are the end products of Galton’s contribution.
It has been stated that at the time of birth the child has no specific traits except that it functions through its
reflexes. As the child grows day by day, and in the process of socialisation it learns many things in regard to the
environment. It is said that the child thus at birth is in a blank state of mind or ‘tabula rasa’, and whatever one
wants to put into it, the same would be absorbed and the child’s behaviour accordingly will change. This view
which holds that “nurture” yields all or almost all the behavioural traits in the individual child. Thus the
environment (nurture) plays a significant role in the development of the child’s personality.
However, the fast growing understanding of the human genome has come up with the information that both the
sides are right in their own part. Whereas nature provides us with inherent abilities and traits, nurture reshapes
these genetic tendencies and melds them with progressive learning and maturity. This view point which agrees
that both nature and nurture play crucial roles in human. personality development has come to be known as
interactionism.
,The Nature Theory – Heredity
It has been demonstrated by scientists that traits such as eye color and hair color are decided by specific genes
that are embedded and encoded in each human cell. The things have been taken a step further by the nature
theory that formulates in more recent times it has also been shown that the more abstract traits such as
intelligence, personality, aggression and sexual orientation are also encoded in an individual’s DNA. This has
led to the concept of behavioural genes which can justify criminal acts or criminal behaviours. Another debated
issue in context of nature theory is the occurrence of “gay gene” that points to a genetic component to sexual
orientation. If there is no role of genetics, then fraternal twins brought up under the same environmental
conditions, would be alike, even though differences exist in their genetic make up. But, according to the studies,
they closely resemble each other as compared to non-twin brothers and sisters.
The Nurture Theory – Environment
The proponents of the nurture theory are of the view that genetic tendencies ultimately do not matter. They
believe that our behavioural aspects originate only from the environmental forces in our upbringing. American
psychologist John Watson, a strong proponent of environmental learning, demonstrated that disorders like
phobia could also be explained by classical conditioning. Today, known as the Father of Behavioral Science,
B.F. Skinner proved that human behaviour could be conditioned in much the same way as animals. Even if
reared apart, identical twins should have been exactly the same in all respects if environment had no role to
play.
Twin Studies
Twin studies are an important tool in resolving the nature versus nurture argument. Identical twins or
Monozygotic twins are siblings who have exact duplicates of their genotypes. They best indicate that whether
biological dispositions affect traits and psychopathology in human beings.
Fraternal twins, dizygotic twins share exactly half the number of genes with each other. They are a very good
basis for comparison of identical twins. Twin studies usually rely on samples of identical and fraternal twins.
Some of the important studies on twins and related findings are presented below.
A study was conducted to determine the heritability of attitudes among twins, as well as the genetic variables,
such as intelligence, that can play a role in affecting the attitudes among pairs of twins. The results of the study
showed partial correlation between the attitudes of the participants with their genetic factors. Also, correlation
existed between the attitudes related to self-reported perspectives or to activities. For example, the subjects were
asked to rate themselves on the trait of sociability through a survey. The trait was correlated with 5 out of 6
attitudes factors that the subjects had towards sociability. It was also found that non-shared environment
experiences between pairs are the strongest cause of attitude variances that overshadowed genetic
,predispositions as well as shared environment experiences (Olson et al., 2001). Non-shared environment refers
to a condition in which something in the environment directly affects one twin but no impact occurs on the
other at all (Van denOord, 2000).
Basic Measurement of Personality
The methods are: 1. Subjective Methods 2. Objective Methods 3. Projective Methods 4. Psycho-Analytic
Methods.
1. Subjective Methods:
a) Observation: Observation of behaviour of a person over a long period is one of the techniques of
assessing personality traits.
b) Case Study Method: In this method the case history has to be re-organized and re-written from infancy
upto adulthood. Really speaking, on the basis of this method, the reality of the personality is found out.
c) Interview: It is a process of communication or interaction in which the interviewee gives the needed
information verbally to the interviewer in a face-to-face situation or one-to-one situation.
d) Autobiography: Autobiography method is also used to assess personality. The child is asked to write
his own autobiography and certain personality characteristics can be studied from them.
e) Cumulative Record Card: The cumulative record is a useful and permanent record which includes
various information about the child.
2. Objective Methods: Following are some objective methods of personality measurement that eliminate
the subjectivity of interpretation:
(a) Rating Scales: Rating scales are used to rate the various personality traits, adjustment, emotions,
interests, attitudes performance on a task.
(b) Check lists: Carefully prepared check list can be employed to collect data about a person.
(c) Controlled Observation: Controlled observation under laboratory conditions or under controlled
conditions can be used to study certain aspects of the personality of an individual.
(d) Sociogram: With the help of this method, the sociability of the subject is measured. With the help of
this method relationship of the students is judged.
(e) Personality Inventories: Ari individual’s written account of the past behaviour, feelings and wishes can
be a good source of information about his personality. Self-ratings can be done through personality
inventories and paper and pencil test. Some popular personality inventories are: California Tests of
Personality, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Bell’s Adjustment Inventory,
Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, Edward Personal Preference Schedule, Cornell Index, Boyd’s
Personality Questionnaire, Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey, Minnesota Counselling
Inventory, Thurstone Temperament Schedule, Eysenck’s Personality Inventory, The Shipley Personal
, Inventory, I.P.P. Personality Inventory Test, Comrey Personality Scales, Saxena’s Personality Inventory,
Mittal’s Adjustment Inventory.
3. Projective Methods: These techniques enable a subject to project his internal feelings, attitudes, needs,
values or wishes to an external object. In the projective test situation, the individual responds freely to
relatively unstructured yet standard situation to which he is asked to respond. Some of the major
projective techniques are:
(a) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):The TAT was developed by Morgan and Murray in 1935. It
requires the subject to look at the picture and to interpret it by telling a story. He is invited to say what
led up to the scene in the picture. Why such events occurred, and what the consequences will be?
(b) Children’s Apperception Test (CAT):It was developed by Leopold Bellak. The test consists of ten
pictures meant for children of the age group 3 to 10. Pictures are shown one after another and reactions
(responses) are noted and interpreted.
(c) Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Test: This test was developed by Hermann Rorschach in 1921. It uses ten
irregular-ink-blots standing against a white background. Each inkblot is shown in a fixed number of
ways and the testee is asked to report what he sees.
(d) Projective Questionnaires: In this technique the subject is given a series of questions to answer in his
own way. Through such questionnaires it is possible to obtain information regarding the subject’s
emotional life, his values, his attitudes and sentiments.
(e) Sentence Completion Test: These tests present a series of incomplete sentences to be completed by the
testee in one or more words.
(f) (f) Psychodrama:It requires the subject to play spontaneously a role assigned to him in a specific
situation. Psychodrama deals with interpersonal relationships and maladjustment problem within the
individual.
(g) (g) Drawing, Painting and Sculpture: Artistic productions can also be used as projective techniques.
4. Psycho-Analytic Methods:
(a) Word Association Test: In such test the subject is presented a list of words, one at a time and is asked
to give the first word that comes to his mind. The responses given by the subject and the time taken by
him are recorded by the tester for interpretation.
(b) Free Association Test: In this test the subject is allowed to talk for hours together and from it certain
traits and behavioural problems are noted.
(c) Dream Analysis: In this technique the dream of the subject is analysed and unconscious behaviour is
interpreted. Since ‘Dream is the royal road to unconscious’, the dream analysis is an effective
psychoanalytic method to locate unconscious behaviour of the individual.
Module I
Introduction
- Nature of personality theory: Present status
- Nature and Nurture debate
- Basic measurements of personality
Nature and Nurture Debate
The nature versus nurture debate basically relates to the relative importance of an individual’s inherent traits
versus the personal experiences that lead to individual differences in physical and behavioural traits.
Some scientists are of the view that genetic predispositions or even animal instincts are the push factors behind
people’s behaviour. Others believe that the way one behaves is directly dependent upon the manner in which the
person has been taught to behave. The former is known as the “nature” theory of human behaviour whereas the
latter is termed as the “nurture” theory of human behaviour. Sir Francis Galton was fascinated by the idea of
genetic pre-programming and tried to uncover the predestined ways of human beings. However, many of his
experiments proved ill-conceived but yet his contribution has been vital to the study of personality issues. The
technique of finger printing and the Word Association Test are the end products of Galton’s contribution.
It has been stated that at the time of birth the child has no specific traits except that it functions through its
reflexes. As the child grows day by day, and in the process of socialisation it learns many things in regard to the
environment. It is said that the child thus at birth is in a blank state of mind or ‘tabula rasa’, and whatever one
wants to put into it, the same would be absorbed and the child’s behaviour accordingly will change. This view
which holds that “nurture” yields all or almost all the behavioural traits in the individual child. Thus the
environment (nurture) plays a significant role in the development of the child’s personality.
However, the fast growing understanding of the human genome has come up with the information that both the
sides are right in their own part. Whereas nature provides us with inherent abilities and traits, nurture reshapes
these genetic tendencies and melds them with progressive learning and maturity. This view point which agrees
that both nature and nurture play crucial roles in human. personality development has come to be known as
interactionism.
,The Nature Theory – Heredity
It has been demonstrated by scientists that traits such as eye color and hair color are decided by specific genes
that are embedded and encoded in each human cell. The things have been taken a step further by the nature
theory that formulates in more recent times it has also been shown that the more abstract traits such as
intelligence, personality, aggression and sexual orientation are also encoded in an individual’s DNA. This has
led to the concept of behavioural genes which can justify criminal acts or criminal behaviours. Another debated
issue in context of nature theory is the occurrence of “gay gene” that points to a genetic component to sexual
orientation. If there is no role of genetics, then fraternal twins brought up under the same environmental
conditions, would be alike, even though differences exist in their genetic make up. But, according to the studies,
they closely resemble each other as compared to non-twin brothers and sisters.
The Nurture Theory – Environment
The proponents of the nurture theory are of the view that genetic tendencies ultimately do not matter. They
believe that our behavioural aspects originate only from the environmental forces in our upbringing. American
psychologist John Watson, a strong proponent of environmental learning, demonstrated that disorders like
phobia could also be explained by classical conditioning. Today, known as the Father of Behavioral Science,
B.F. Skinner proved that human behaviour could be conditioned in much the same way as animals. Even if
reared apart, identical twins should have been exactly the same in all respects if environment had no role to
play.
Twin Studies
Twin studies are an important tool in resolving the nature versus nurture argument. Identical twins or
Monozygotic twins are siblings who have exact duplicates of their genotypes. They best indicate that whether
biological dispositions affect traits and psychopathology in human beings.
Fraternal twins, dizygotic twins share exactly half the number of genes with each other. They are a very good
basis for comparison of identical twins. Twin studies usually rely on samples of identical and fraternal twins.
Some of the important studies on twins and related findings are presented below.
A study was conducted to determine the heritability of attitudes among twins, as well as the genetic variables,
such as intelligence, that can play a role in affecting the attitudes among pairs of twins. The results of the study
showed partial correlation between the attitudes of the participants with their genetic factors. Also, correlation
existed between the attitudes related to self-reported perspectives or to activities. For example, the subjects were
asked to rate themselves on the trait of sociability through a survey. The trait was correlated with 5 out of 6
attitudes factors that the subjects had towards sociability. It was also found that non-shared environment
experiences between pairs are the strongest cause of attitude variances that overshadowed genetic
,predispositions as well as shared environment experiences (Olson et al., 2001). Non-shared environment refers
to a condition in which something in the environment directly affects one twin but no impact occurs on the
other at all (Van denOord, 2000).
Basic Measurement of Personality
The methods are: 1. Subjective Methods 2. Objective Methods 3. Projective Methods 4. Psycho-Analytic
Methods.
1. Subjective Methods:
a) Observation: Observation of behaviour of a person over a long period is one of the techniques of
assessing personality traits.
b) Case Study Method: In this method the case history has to be re-organized and re-written from infancy
upto adulthood. Really speaking, on the basis of this method, the reality of the personality is found out.
c) Interview: It is a process of communication or interaction in which the interviewee gives the needed
information verbally to the interviewer in a face-to-face situation or one-to-one situation.
d) Autobiography: Autobiography method is also used to assess personality. The child is asked to write
his own autobiography and certain personality characteristics can be studied from them.
e) Cumulative Record Card: The cumulative record is a useful and permanent record which includes
various information about the child.
2. Objective Methods: Following are some objective methods of personality measurement that eliminate
the subjectivity of interpretation:
(a) Rating Scales: Rating scales are used to rate the various personality traits, adjustment, emotions,
interests, attitudes performance on a task.
(b) Check lists: Carefully prepared check list can be employed to collect data about a person.
(c) Controlled Observation: Controlled observation under laboratory conditions or under controlled
conditions can be used to study certain aspects of the personality of an individual.
(d) Sociogram: With the help of this method, the sociability of the subject is measured. With the help of
this method relationship of the students is judged.
(e) Personality Inventories: Ari individual’s written account of the past behaviour, feelings and wishes can
be a good source of information about his personality. Self-ratings can be done through personality
inventories and paper and pencil test. Some popular personality inventories are: California Tests of
Personality, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Bell’s Adjustment Inventory,
Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, Edward Personal Preference Schedule, Cornell Index, Boyd’s
Personality Questionnaire, Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey, Minnesota Counselling
Inventory, Thurstone Temperament Schedule, Eysenck’s Personality Inventory, The Shipley Personal
, Inventory, I.P.P. Personality Inventory Test, Comrey Personality Scales, Saxena’s Personality Inventory,
Mittal’s Adjustment Inventory.
3. Projective Methods: These techniques enable a subject to project his internal feelings, attitudes, needs,
values or wishes to an external object. In the projective test situation, the individual responds freely to
relatively unstructured yet standard situation to which he is asked to respond. Some of the major
projective techniques are:
(a) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):The TAT was developed by Morgan and Murray in 1935. It
requires the subject to look at the picture and to interpret it by telling a story. He is invited to say what
led up to the scene in the picture. Why such events occurred, and what the consequences will be?
(b) Children’s Apperception Test (CAT):It was developed by Leopold Bellak. The test consists of ten
pictures meant for children of the age group 3 to 10. Pictures are shown one after another and reactions
(responses) are noted and interpreted.
(c) Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Test: This test was developed by Hermann Rorschach in 1921. It uses ten
irregular-ink-blots standing against a white background. Each inkblot is shown in a fixed number of
ways and the testee is asked to report what he sees.
(d) Projective Questionnaires: In this technique the subject is given a series of questions to answer in his
own way. Through such questionnaires it is possible to obtain information regarding the subject’s
emotional life, his values, his attitudes and sentiments.
(e) Sentence Completion Test: These tests present a series of incomplete sentences to be completed by the
testee in one or more words.
(f) (f) Psychodrama:It requires the subject to play spontaneously a role assigned to him in a specific
situation. Psychodrama deals with interpersonal relationships and maladjustment problem within the
individual.
(g) (g) Drawing, Painting and Sculpture: Artistic productions can also be used as projective techniques.
4. Psycho-Analytic Methods:
(a) Word Association Test: In such test the subject is presented a list of words, one at a time and is asked
to give the first word that comes to his mind. The responses given by the subject and the time taken by
him are recorded by the tester for interpretation.
(b) Free Association Test: In this test the subject is allowed to talk for hours together and from it certain
traits and behavioural problems are noted.
(c) Dream Analysis: In this technique the dream of the subject is analysed and unconscious behaviour is
interpreted. Since ‘Dream is the royal road to unconscious’, the dream analysis is an effective
psychoanalytic method to locate unconscious behaviour of the individual.
