BIOL 235 – Human Physiology Keywords and topics Chapters (1-10)Athabasca

Athabasca BIOL 235 – Human Physiology (1-10) Make certain that you can define, and use in content, each of the terms listed below, and that you understand the significance of each of the concepts. KEY WORDS AND TOPICS Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Human Body 1. Define the following terms: a) Anatomy: the science of structures and the relationships among them b) Dissection: the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships c) Physiology: the science of body function – how the body parts work 2. Define the following levels of structural organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system and organism a) Chemical level Atom: smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions Molecule: two or more atoms joined together b) Cellular level Cell: the basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed on chemicals c) Tissue level Tissues: groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function, similar to the way words are put together to form sentences (e.g. epithelial, muscular, connective, nervous) d) Organ level Organ: structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues; they have specific functions and recognizable shapes e) System level System: consists related organ with a common function f) Organism level Organism: any living individual 3. Identify the 11 systems of the human body, list representative organs of each system and describe the major functions of each system a) Integumentary ▪ Skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, oil glands b) Skeletal ▪ Bones, joints, cartilage c) Muscular ▪ Skeletal muscle d) Nervous ▪ Brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes, ears e) Endocrine ▪ Pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries and testes f) Cardiovascular ▪ Blood, heart, blood vessels g) Lymphatic ▪ Lymphatic fluid and vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, T cells, B cells h) Respiratory ▪ Pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes i) Digestive ▪ Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, anus, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas j) Urinary ▪ Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra k) Reproductive ▪ Gonads, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, epididymis, ductus (vas deferens), seminal vesicles, prostate, penis 4. Define the basic life processes of the human body a) Metabolism: the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body Catabolism: the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components Anabolism: the building up of complex chemical substances form smaller, simpler components b) Responsiveness: the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes (e.g. increase in body temperature) c) Movement: includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells (e.g. coordinated action of leg muscles in moving your body) d) Growth: an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both e) Differentiation: development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state Stem cells: precursor cells that undergo differentiation f) Reproduction: the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement or the production of a new individual g) Autopsy: post-mortem examination of the body and dissection of its internal organs to confirm or determine cause of death 5. Define the term homeostasis, and explain the effects of stress on homeostasis a) Homeostasis: the dynamic condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes b) Body fluids: dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are found inside cells as well as surrounding them. Intracellular fluid: fluid inside cells Extracellular fluid: fluid outside body cells ▪ Interstitial fluid: ECF that fills narrow spaces between cells of tissues ▪ Blood plasma: ECF within blood vessels ▪ Lymph: blood plasma within lymphatic vessels ▪ Cerebrospinal fluid: ECF in and around the spinal cord ▪ Synovial fluid: cerebrospinal fluid in the joints ▪ Aqueous humor and vitreous body: ECF of the eyes 6. Describe components of a feedback a) Control of homeostasis; the nervous system regulates homeostasis by sending electrical signals known as nerve impulses to organs that can counteract changes from the balanced states and the endocrine system includes many glands that secrete messenger molecules called hormones b) Feedback system (feedback loop): a cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, reevaluated c) Receptor: a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center – afferent pathway because it is toward – input d) Control center: sets the range of values within which the controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed – output – efferent pathway because information flows away e) Effector: a body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition 7. Compare the operation of positive and negative feedback systems a) Negative feedback systems: reverses a change in a controlled condition (e.g. blood pressure. Baroreceptors, pressure-sensitive nerve cells located in the walls of certain blood vessels, detect blood pressure b) Positive feedback systems: strengthen/reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions (e.g. childbirth, labor contractions push fetus into cervix) 8. Explain the relationship between homeostasis and disease a) Disorder: any abnormality of structure or function b) Disease: a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms c) Signs: Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure d) Diagnosis: the science and skill of distinguishing one disorder or disease from another 9. Describe the anatomical position, and compare common and anatomical terms used to describe various regions of the human body a) Anatomical position: descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in a standard position Prone position: reclining body term; if body is lying facedown Supine position: reclining body term; if body is lying face-up b) Regional names: the major regions of the body (e.g. head, neck, trunk, upper limb, lower limb 10. Define the terms describing directional and anatomical planes used in association with the human body a) Directional terms: words that describe the position of one body part relative to another b) Planes: imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts c) Sagittal: vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides Midsagittal plane (median plane): when a plane passes through the midline of the body or organ and divides into equal left and right sides Midline: imaginary vertical line that divides body into equal L and R sides d) Frontal or coronal plane: divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior positions e) Transverse plane (cross-sectional, horizontal): divides the body or organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. f) Oblique plane: passes through the body or an organ at an oblique angle (any angle other than a 90 degree angle) g) Section (midsagittal, frontal, transverse) 11. List, by name and location, the principal body cavities and the organs contained within them a) Body cavities: spaces that enclose internal organs (e.g. bones, muscles, ligaments) b) Cranial cavity: cranial bones that form space of head and contains the brain c) Vertebral (spinal) canal: bones of the vertebral column (backbone) that form the vertebral (spinal) canal which contains the spinal cord Meninges: three layers of protective tissue d) Thoracic cavity: chest cavity; that is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the best, the sternum and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column Pericardial cavity: found within the thoracic cavity; a fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart and two fluid-filled spaces called the pleural cavities – one around each lung Mediastinum: central part of the thoracic cavity Diaphragm: dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity e) Abdominopelvic cavity: extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the abdominal muscular wall and the bones and muscles of the pelvis Abdominal cavity: superior; contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine and most of the large intestine Pelvic cavity: inferior; contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system Viscera: organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization 1. Identify, by name and symbol, the principal chemical elements of the human body a) Chemical element: all forms of matter – both living and nonliving are made up of a limited number of building blocks called CEs b) Chemical symbol: one or two letters of the element’s name c) Major elements: oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen d) Lesser elements: calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, magnesium, chlorine, sulfur, sodium e) Trace elements: 14 elements that make up for 0.4% of body mass, are present in tiny amounts and are responsible for important functions in the body (e.g. iodine in making thyroid hormones) 2. Describe the basic structure of an atom, ion, molecule, compound and free radicle a) Atom: smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the element b) Subatomic particles: dozens of them compose individual atoms Nucleus: ▪ Proton: positively charged ▪ Neutron: uncharged Electrons: negatively charged; move in space surrounding nucleus forming a “cloud” ▪ Electron shells: regions around the nucleus where electrons move c) Atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom d) Mass number: the sum of its protons and neutrons e) Isotopes: atoms of an element that have different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers f) Atomic mass: average mass of all its naturally occurring isotopes (typically the atomic mass of an element is close to the mass number of its most abundant isotope g) Ion: an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal numbers of protons and electrons Ionization: the process of giving up or gaining electrons h) Molecule: when two or more atoms share electrons, the resulting is a molecule i) Compound: a substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements (e.g. water) j) Free radical: an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost shell (e.g. superoxide) 3. Explain, briefly, how ionic, covalent and hydrogen bonds are formed a) Chemical bond: the forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or compound Valence shell of electrons: electrons in the outermost shell and dictates the likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond Ionic bond: the force of attraction that holds together ions with opposite charges ▪ Cation: positively charged ion ▪ Anion: negatively charged ion ▪ Electrolyte: an ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in solutions Covalent bond: two or more atoms share valence electrons rather than gaining or losing them and can be single, double, triple bonds ▪ Nonpolar: two atoms share the electrons equally – one atom does not attract the shared electrons more strongly than the other atom ▪ Polar: the sharing of electrons between two atoms in unequal – the nucleus of one atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the nucleus of the other atom ▪ Electronegativity: the power to attract electrons to itself Hydrogen bond: when a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attracts the partial negative charge of neighboring electronegative atoms, most often larger oxygen or nitrogen atoms Surface tension: a measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid 4. Define the term chemical reaction, and explain the basic differences between synthesis, decomposition, exchange and reversible reactions a) Chemical reaction: occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms Reactants: starting substances Products: ending substances Catalysts: chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur Synthesis reactions (anabolism): when two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and larger molecules; usually endergonic because they absorb more energy than they release Decomposition reactions (catabolism): split up large molecules into smaller atoms, ions, or molecules; usually exergonic because they release more energy than they absorb Exchange reaction: consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions (AB + CD  AD + BC) Reversible reaction: the products can revert to the original reactants Oxidation-reduction reactions: oxidation refers to the loss of electrons and oxidized substance releases energy; reduction refers to the gain of electrons and reduced substance gains of energy; redox reactions are always parallel; when one substance is oxidized, another is reduced 5. List and compare the properties of inorganic acids, bases, salts and water a) Inorganic compound: usually lack carbon and are structurally simple b) Organic compound: always contain carbon, usually contain hydrogen, always have covalent bonds, are large molecules made up of mostly large carbon chains c) Water: the most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems d) Water as a solvent: In a solution, a substance called the solvent dissolves another substance called the solute (typically more solvent than solute) Hydrophilic: solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds; dissolve easily in water (e.g. sugar, salt) Hydrophobic: molecules that contain mainly nonpolar covalent bonds; not very water-soluble (e.g. vegetable oils, animal fats) e) Water in chemical reactions Hydrolysis: to loosen or break apart; enables dietary nutrients to be absorbed into the body Dehydration synthesis reaction: when two smaller molecules join to form a larger molecule; a water molecule is one of the products formed f) Thermal properties Heat capacity: water can absorb or release a relatively large amount of heat with only a modest change in its own temperature; reason for this is large number of hydrogen bonds; as water absorbs heat energy, some of the energy is used to break hydrogen bonds g) Water as a lubricant: water is a major component of mucus and other lubricating fluids throughout the body h) Mixture: combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bound by chemical bonds (e.g. air contains nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide) i) Colloid: differs from a solution mainly because of the size of its particles. The solute particles in a colloid are large enough to scatter light, just as water droplets in fog scatter light from a car’s headlight beams. For this reason, colloids usually appear translucent or opaque (e.g. milk) j) Suspension: the suspended material may mix with the liquid or suspending medium for some time, but eventually it will settle out (e.g. blood) k) Concentration: expressed as a percentage, which gives the relative mass of a solute found in a given volume of solution, another is moles per liter (mol/L) Mole: the amount of any substance that has a mass in grams equal to the sum of the atomic masses of all its atoms l) Acid: substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions Hydrogen ion (H+): a single proton with one positive charge; proton donor m) Base: removes H+ from a solution and is a proton acceptor Hydroxide ion (OH-): what bases dissociate into n) Salt: when dissolved in water, dissociates into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OH- 6. Define the term pH, and explain the role of buffer systems in homeostasis pH is expressed on a scale from 1-14. The scale is based on the concentration of H+ ions in moles per liter. A pH of 7 means the solution contains one ten-millionth (0.) of a mole of hydrogen ions per liter. It also means the concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal. pH of 4 has a concentration of H+ of 0.0001 mol/L. The change of one whole number on the pH scale represents a tenfold aka a pH of 6 denotes 10x more H+ than a pH of 7 etc. Buffer systems function to convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases. Homeostatic mechanisms maintain the pH of blood between 7.35 and 7.45 which is slightly more basic than pure water. If pH falls below, acidosis occurs, and if it rises above, alkalosis occurs. 7. Compare the structure and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, DNA, RNA and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a) Macromolecules: small organic molecules that combine into large molecules; are usually polymers Polymers: a large molecules formed by the covalent bonding of many identical or similar small building-block molecules called monomers Monomers: small building block molecules Isomers: molecules that have the same formula but different structures b) Carbohydrate: include sugars, glycogen, starches and cellulose; function mainly as a source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions; ratio of hydrogen to oxygen usually 2:1 Monosaccharide: monomer of a carbohydrate, contain from 3 to 7 carbon atoms (e.g. hexose) Disaccharide: a molecule formed from the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis (e.g. table sugar) Polysaccharide: contains tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis reactions; do not taste sweet; main polysaccharide in the body is glycogen; starches: polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants; cellulose: polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans but does provide bulk to help eliminate feces Glycogen: made entirely of glucose monomers linked to one another in branching chains; stored in skeletal muscles and the liver c) Lipid: important group of organic compounds; make up 18-25% of body mass; do not have 2:1 ratio; the proportion of electronegative oxygen atoms in lipids is usually smaller than in carbohydrates, so there are fewer polar covalent bonds and as a result, lipids are insoluble to polar solvents such as water Lipoprotein: lipid molecules joined with hydrophilic protein molecules; soluble, outside Fatty acid: simple lipid, synthesizes triglycerides and phospholipids; can be catabolized to generate ATP; consists of a carboxyl group and a hydrocarbon saturated: contains only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chains “saturated with hydrogen atoms”  saturated fats (i.e. red meat, whole milk, cheese etc) and unsaturated: contains one or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain  unsaturated fats which can be monounsaturated – contains triglycerides that mostly consist of monounsaturated fatty acids (i.e. peanut oil, canola oil)or polyunsaturated - contains triglycerides that mostly consist of polyunsaturated fatty acids (i.e. corn, sunflower, soybean oils) Triglyceride or triacylglycerol: most plentiful in the body and diet; consists of two types of building blocks: a single glycerol molecules and three fatty acid molecules ▪ Glycerol: forms the backbone of a triglyceride Phospholipid: have a glycerol backbone and two fatty acid chains attached to the first two carbons. In the third position, a phosphate group links a small charged group that usually contains nitrogen to the backbone. This portion is polar and can form hydrogen bonds with mater molecules. ▪ Amphipathic: are both polar and nonpolar Steroid: have 4 rings of carbon atoms ▪ Cholesterol: large nonpolar region consisting of 4 rings and a hydrocarbon tail Eicosanoids: Prostaglandins: Leukotrienes: d) Protein: large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and sometimes sulfur (normal body 12-18% protein) Functions of proteins (table 2.8): Amino acid: monomer of proteins; each of the 20 different AAs has a hydrogen atom and 3 important functional groups attached to a central carbon atom Peptide bond: the covalent bond joining each pair of amino acids Dipeptide: when two amino acids combine and when another AA is added a tripeptide forms; further additions of AAs result in the formation of a chainlike peptide (4-9 AA), polypeptide (10-2000+) Primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure: ▪ Primary: unique sequence of AAs that are linked by covalent peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain; genetically determined; any changes can be detrimental e.g. sickle cell VAL  GLU ▪ Secondary: the repeated twisting or folding of neighboring amino acids in the polypeptide chain; alpha helix, beta pleated sheets; stabilized by hydrogen bonds which form at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone ▪ Tertiary: refers to the 3D shape of a polypeptide chain. Each protein has a unique tertiary structure that determines how it will function; the tertiary folding pattern may allow AAs at opposite ends of the chain to be close neighbors; several types of bonds can contribute to a protein’s T structure – strongest and least common are disulfide bridges, weak hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions; chaperones help in the folding process ▪ Quaternary: Proteins that contain more than one polypeptide chain; the arrangement of the individual polypeptide chains relative to one another is the Q structure; the bonds that hold polypeptide chains together are similar to those that maintain the tertiary structure Fibrous and globular proteins: fibrous are insoluble in water and their polypeptide chains form long strands that are parallel to each other and have structural functions (e.g. collagen – strengthens bones etc, elastin – provides stretch in skin, keratin – forms structure of hair and nails and waterproofs skin, also fibrin, dystrophin, actin and myosin). Globular are more or less soluble in water and their polypeptide chains are spherical in shape and have many metabolic functions (e.g. enzymes, antibodies, complement proteins, hemoglobin, lipoproteins, albumins, membrane proteins, hormones) Denaturation: what happens if a protein encounters an altered environment it may unravel and lose its characteristic shape – makes proteins no longer functional and can only sometimes be reversed e) Nucleic acid: huge organic molecules that contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus; two types; chain of repeating monomers called nucleotides DNA: inherited genetic material inside each human RNA: relays instructions from the genes to guide each cell’s synthesis of protein from AAs Nucleotide: consist of 3 parts ▪ Nitrogenous base: contain atoms of C, H, O and N; ATCG; AG = purines, CG = pyrimidines ▪ Deoxyribose: 5 carbon sugar; attaches to each base in DNA Double helix: WatsonCrick, DNA resembles a spiral ladder; two strands of alternating phosphate groups and deoxyribose sugars form the uprights of the ladder; paired bases, held together by hydrogen bonds, form the rungs Ribose: the sugar in RNA nucleotide; pentose sugar ATP: “energy currency” of living systems – transfers energy liberated in exergonic catabolic reactions to power cellular activities that require energy ADP 8. Describe the characteristics of enzymes, and discuss their functions a) Enzyme: protein molecules; consist of two parts: apoenzyme and non-protein – cofactor (i.e. a metal ion); catalyze specific reactions b) Substrate: specific; the reactant molecules on which the enzyme acts c) Active site: the part of the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction, fits the substrate like key to lock d) Enzyme-substrate complex: substrates make contact with active site on the surface of the enzyme molecules, forming a temporary this intermediate compound Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization 1. Define the term cell, and list the three major components of a cell a) Cell: living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane b) Cell division: process where one cell divides into two identical cells c) Cell biology – cytology: the study of cellular structure and function d) Plasma membrane: forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal environment from the external environment. It is the selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell. This selectivity helps establish and maintain the appropriate environment for normal cellular activities Internal environment: everything inside the cell External environment: everything outside the cell e) Cytoplasm: consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. Has two main components: Cytosol – intracellular fluid: fluid portion of cytoplasm, also called intracellular fluid, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles Organelles: each with a characteristic shape and specific function (e.g. ribosomes, ER, golgi, lysosomes) Nucleus: a large organelle that houses most of the cell’s DNA ▪ Chromosomes: a single molecules of DNA associated with several proteins, contains thousands of genes ▪ Genes: control most aspects of cellular structure and function 2. Explain the structure and functions of the plasma membrane a) Plasma membrane Fluid mosaic model: what is used to describe the plasma membrane. According to this model, the molecular arrangement of the plasma membrane resembles a continually moving sea of fluid lipids that contains a mosaic of many different proteins – some float freely while others are anchored. Lipid bilayer: basic structural framework of the plasma membrane; two back- to-back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules – phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids Phospholipid: makes up 75% of the membrane; lipids that contain phosphate Cholesterol: steroid with attach hydroxyl group Glycolipid: lipids with attached carbohydrate groups Amphipathic: polar and nonpolar Membrane proteins: integral proteins – extend into or through the lipid bilayer and are firmly embedded in it; most are transmembrane proteins which means they span the entire bilayer and protrude into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid. Peripheral – attached to the polar heads of membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane Functions of membrane proteins: ▪ Ion channel: pores or holes that specific ions, such as potassium ions (K+), can flow through to get into or out of the cell. Most ion channels are selective ▪ Carriers receptors: selectively moving a polar substance or ion from one side of the membrane to the other; “transporters” ▪ Ligand: a specific molecule that binds to a receptor is a ligand of that receptor (e.g. insulin receptors bind the hormone insulin) ▪ Enzymes: catalyze specific chemical reactions at the inside or outside surface of the cell ▪ Linkers: (Integral proteins serves as) anchor proteins in the plasma of neighboring cells to one another or to protein filaments inside and outside the cell. (Peripheral proteins) also serve as enzymes and linkers ▪ Cell-identity markers: membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids often serve as CIM. Enable a cell to: 1. Recognize other cells of the same kind during tissue formation 2. Recognize and respond to potentially dangerous foreign cells Selective permeability: plasma membrane permits some substances to pass more readily than others. Concentration gradient: a difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to another Electrical gradient: a difference in electrical charges between two regions Membrane potential: the charge difference Electrochemical gradient: the combined influence of the concentration gradient and the electrical gradient on movement of a particular ion 3. Explain selective permeability and describe the electrochemical gradient across the plasma membrane a) Transport across the plasma membrane