UNIT 2: CONDUCTING PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Learning aim:
A: Understand research methods and their importance in psychological enquiry
In this report, I will explain, assess, and evaluate the research process to outline its importance.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Psychological research is the process of using the scientific method to systematically perform an
investigation into a specific 'issue' or concern, to produce theories and uncover facts. This can be done
through deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is when scientists start with a general
statement, or hypothesis, and use general facts to reach a specific, logical conclusion. For example, "all
children are scared of the dark, Tim is a child, so Tim must be scared of the dark". Whereas inductive
reasoning is when researchers develop a theory, or conjecture, based on patterns observed. For example,
"Loads of children are scared of the dark, so it is likely that Tim is scared of the dark". These types of
reasoning can be useful in psychological research as they allow us to generate more theories and research
that can be applied to real-life - like why, in the example above, there is a pattern of children being afraid
of the dark.
We carry out psychological research so that we can grasp a better understanding of human behaviour and
apply our findings to real life, allowing us to maintain some form of control over our world. There are three
main qualities that researchers must aim to include in all their research:
1. Scientific research aims to be empirical
'Empirical' means that scientific knowledge should be gathered through direct observation or experience,
not theory. Empirical data is called 'primary data' - data that is collected by the researcher directly.
Primary data is particularly useful to researchers because it is not outdated, it is generally more accurate, it
gives you a higher level of control over your research and allows you to resolve issues that are unique to
your research. However, sometimes it can be difficult to obtain primary data as it is more expensive, more
time consuming, will not always provide you with the amount of detail you required, and sometimes is
simply not possible due to the size of your research.
Main sources of primary data include interviews, surveys, observation and case studies.
2. Scientific research aims to be objective
This means that research should not be influenced by personal feelings, expectations or experiences. This
refers to the feelings, expectations and experiences of the researcher or their sample.
If someone were to replicate the study, the data they collect should be the same.
3. Scientific research aims to be replicable
As mentioned above, replication is a way of verifying the reliability (consistency) of a study.
If we replicate a study and it does not produce the same results, it means that there is an issue with the
research or the way it was conducted - most likely it was not objective.
When conducting research, there are things, called 'variables', that the researcher must control. 'Variables'
refer to the things in our experiment that will 'vary' - become different. There are two main types of variable
in psychological research: the independent variable, and the dependent variable. The independent variable
is the presumed 'cause' - the thing that is manipulated by the researcher to determine the presumed 'effect'
1
, UNIT 2: CONDUCTING PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
it will have on the dependent variable, the thing that is measured. For example, a psychologist might
research how vision affects how much information is stored into our memory, by asking one group of
participants to memorise a block of words with their eyes open, and asking another group to memorise the
same block of words with their eyes closed. The independent variable would be their eyes (being open or
closed), whilst the dependent variable would be how many words they were able to recall.
However, sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish the cause-and-effect relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. This is because of what we call 'confounding', or 'extraneous',
variables (both can be used interchangeably). Confounding variables are variables that are constantly
changing alongside the independent variable, making it difficult for the researcher to determine the cause
and effect. Examples of confounding variables can include the time of day, the temperature, the weather,
and even the participant's mood. These are also referred to as 'extraneous' variables, as they are extra, and
unrelated to our study or the key variables (independent and dependent). Extraneous variables usually will
not cause any issues for researchers: like in the hypothetical memory study mentioned above, the weather
should not be a problem, but what the participants ate or drank before the study would be a confounding
variable - something like caffeine would have a substantial effect on the study's results.
Experiments are conducted to investigate the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. There are
four main types of experimental method that researchers can use to do this:
Laboratory Experiments
Laboratory experiments take place in a controlled environment - meaning that researchers can control the
independent and extraneous variables.
The laboratory method is particularly useful as it gives the researcher a high level of control, it guarantees
that the study can be replicated easily (as extraneous variables are being controlled) and allows the
researcher to easily determine the cause and effect. There are some issues with this experimental method,
however, as it lacks ecological validity (it does not predict behaviours in a real-life setting) and encourages
demand characteristics: the participants will likely guess what the aim of the study is when placed in this
setting and exhibit the behaviours they think the researcher wants to see.
Field Experiments
These types of experiments take place in a natural environment, such as a park, or train station. The
researcher manipulates the independent variable to find out the effect it has on the dependent variable, but
due to the natural setting, is unable to control most extraneous variables.
Field experiments are characterised by high ecological validity and eliminate demand characteristics.
Despite these positives, field experiments can give rise to ethical issues like deception and no informed
consent, as they will usually be conducted without the knowledge of participants, although this can be
avoided by debriefing participants at the end of the study. This will be elaborated on later in this report.
Natural Experiments
Natural experiments are very similar to field experiments, as they are both conducted in a 'natural'
environment. The difference is that in natural experiments, the researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable. Rather, it changes naturally.
For example, if we wanted to survey how moody people are when they are wearing a black top as opposed
to a white one. The independent variable - the colour of the shirt - changes naturally.
This type of experimental method is high in ecological validity and eliminates demand characteristics.
However, these experiments are extremely difficult to replicate, due to the naturally occurring nature of the
independent variable.
Quasi-Experiments
The prefix 'quasi' means 'almost, but not completely'. They are almost experiments, but not completely.
Experiments are referred to as "quasi-experiments" when the 'variables' cannot be changed. In a study of
2
Learning aim:
A: Understand research methods and their importance in psychological enquiry
In this report, I will explain, assess, and evaluate the research process to outline its importance.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Psychological research is the process of using the scientific method to systematically perform an
investigation into a specific 'issue' or concern, to produce theories and uncover facts. This can be done
through deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is when scientists start with a general
statement, or hypothesis, and use general facts to reach a specific, logical conclusion. For example, "all
children are scared of the dark, Tim is a child, so Tim must be scared of the dark". Whereas inductive
reasoning is when researchers develop a theory, or conjecture, based on patterns observed. For example,
"Loads of children are scared of the dark, so it is likely that Tim is scared of the dark". These types of
reasoning can be useful in psychological research as they allow us to generate more theories and research
that can be applied to real-life - like why, in the example above, there is a pattern of children being afraid
of the dark.
We carry out psychological research so that we can grasp a better understanding of human behaviour and
apply our findings to real life, allowing us to maintain some form of control over our world. There are three
main qualities that researchers must aim to include in all their research:
1. Scientific research aims to be empirical
'Empirical' means that scientific knowledge should be gathered through direct observation or experience,
not theory. Empirical data is called 'primary data' - data that is collected by the researcher directly.
Primary data is particularly useful to researchers because it is not outdated, it is generally more accurate, it
gives you a higher level of control over your research and allows you to resolve issues that are unique to
your research. However, sometimes it can be difficult to obtain primary data as it is more expensive, more
time consuming, will not always provide you with the amount of detail you required, and sometimes is
simply not possible due to the size of your research.
Main sources of primary data include interviews, surveys, observation and case studies.
2. Scientific research aims to be objective
This means that research should not be influenced by personal feelings, expectations or experiences. This
refers to the feelings, expectations and experiences of the researcher or their sample.
If someone were to replicate the study, the data they collect should be the same.
3. Scientific research aims to be replicable
As mentioned above, replication is a way of verifying the reliability (consistency) of a study.
If we replicate a study and it does not produce the same results, it means that there is an issue with the
research or the way it was conducted - most likely it was not objective.
When conducting research, there are things, called 'variables', that the researcher must control. 'Variables'
refer to the things in our experiment that will 'vary' - become different. There are two main types of variable
in psychological research: the independent variable, and the dependent variable. The independent variable
is the presumed 'cause' - the thing that is manipulated by the researcher to determine the presumed 'effect'
1
, UNIT 2: CONDUCTING PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
it will have on the dependent variable, the thing that is measured. For example, a psychologist might
research how vision affects how much information is stored into our memory, by asking one group of
participants to memorise a block of words with their eyes open, and asking another group to memorise the
same block of words with their eyes closed. The independent variable would be their eyes (being open or
closed), whilst the dependent variable would be how many words they were able to recall.
However, sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish the cause-and-effect relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. This is because of what we call 'confounding', or 'extraneous',
variables (both can be used interchangeably). Confounding variables are variables that are constantly
changing alongside the independent variable, making it difficult for the researcher to determine the cause
and effect. Examples of confounding variables can include the time of day, the temperature, the weather,
and even the participant's mood. These are also referred to as 'extraneous' variables, as they are extra, and
unrelated to our study or the key variables (independent and dependent). Extraneous variables usually will
not cause any issues for researchers: like in the hypothetical memory study mentioned above, the weather
should not be a problem, but what the participants ate or drank before the study would be a confounding
variable - something like caffeine would have a substantial effect on the study's results.
Experiments are conducted to investigate the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. There are
four main types of experimental method that researchers can use to do this:
Laboratory Experiments
Laboratory experiments take place in a controlled environment - meaning that researchers can control the
independent and extraneous variables.
The laboratory method is particularly useful as it gives the researcher a high level of control, it guarantees
that the study can be replicated easily (as extraneous variables are being controlled) and allows the
researcher to easily determine the cause and effect. There are some issues with this experimental method,
however, as it lacks ecological validity (it does not predict behaviours in a real-life setting) and encourages
demand characteristics: the participants will likely guess what the aim of the study is when placed in this
setting and exhibit the behaviours they think the researcher wants to see.
Field Experiments
These types of experiments take place in a natural environment, such as a park, or train station. The
researcher manipulates the independent variable to find out the effect it has on the dependent variable, but
due to the natural setting, is unable to control most extraneous variables.
Field experiments are characterised by high ecological validity and eliminate demand characteristics.
Despite these positives, field experiments can give rise to ethical issues like deception and no informed
consent, as they will usually be conducted without the knowledge of participants, although this can be
avoided by debriefing participants at the end of the study. This will be elaborated on later in this report.
Natural Experiments
Natural experiments are very similar to field experiments, as they are both conducted in a 'natural'
environment. The difference is that in natural experiments, the researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable. Rather, it changes naturally.
For example, if we wanted to survey how moody people are when they are wearing a black top as opposed
to a white one. The independent variable - the colour of the shirt - changes naturally.
This type of experimental method is high in ecological validity and eliminates demand characteristics.
However, these experiments are extremely difficult to replicate, due to the naturally occurring nature of the
independent variable.
Quasi-Experiments
The prefix 'quasi' means 'almost, but not completely'. They are almost experiments, but not completely.
Experiments are referred to as "quasi-experiments" when the 'variables' cannot be changed. In a study of
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