STUDY GUIDE
Normal Lab Values
WBC 4.5-11 pH 7.35-7.45 PT 11-12.5 Na 135-145 Creatinine 0.5-1.3
Hemoglobin 13-16 PaCO2 35-45 INR <1.6 K 3.5-5 BUN 8-22
Hematocrit 37-49 PO2 80-100 PTT 23-33 Mg 1.2-2 Serum Osmolality 285-295
MCV 80-100 HCO3 22-28 Ca 8.5-10.5 Osmolar GAP <10
Platelet 130-400 Glucos 70-100 Anion GAP <10
e
PO4 3-4.5
MODULE 1
Chapter 2: Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology (Pages: 47-57,68-70, 87-97)
Chapter 3: The Cellular Environment: Fluids and Electrolytes, Acids and Bases (Pages:115-121)
Chapter 12: Cancer Biology (Page: 368)
Cellular Physiology
- Analyze the steps of the action potential.
Resting membrane potential
Extracellular is more positive charge (more cations)
Intracellular is more negative charge (more anions)
Intracellular charge is -70 to -85 millivolts
Voltage gated Na+ channels open & allow Na+ to enter the cell voltage inside the cell moves towards zero (depolarization)
In order for action potential to be successful, it has to depolarize by 15-20 mV (threshold potential) to reach -55 to -65 mV
Repolarization – negatively restored back into cell to -70 to -85 mV
Na+ channels close
K+ channels open
Refractory period – time which cell membrane resists depolarization (occurs during most of the action potential)
Absolute refractory period – membrane will not respond to any stimulus
Relative refractory period – occurs when membrane is repolarizing, will only respond to a very strong stimulus
Hyperpolarized – when resting membrane potential is > -85 mV. Less excitable d/t greater distance btwn resting membrane
potential & threshold potential
Hypopolarized – resting membrane potential is closer to 0, e.g. -65 mV. More excitable b/c resting membrane potential is
closer to threshold potential
,- Hypokalemia (serum outside cell is low)
Intracellular K leaves cell easily
Cell becomes more negative -100mV hyperpolarized
Decrease in neuromuscular excitability
Weakness in smooth muscle, atony, paresthesias, cardiac dysrhythmias
- Hyperkalemia
More ECF K causes cell to become more positively -60 mV, hypopolarized
More excitable, peaked T waves, if ECF continues to rise getting closer to threshold potential, QRS will widen
When resting membrane potential equals = threshold, no action potential will be generated and cardiac standstill will occur,
paralysis and paresthesia may also occur
- Hypocalcemia
Low serum Ca increases cell permeability to Na causing progressive depolarization
Causes resting membrane closer to threshold potential, hypopolarized
More easily excitable, tetany hyperreflexia, circumoral paresthesia, seizures, & dysrhythmias
- Hypercalcemia
Decreases cell permeability to Na
Distance btwn resting and threshold increases, hyperpolarized
Cells are less excitable, weakness, hyporeflexia, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, encephalopathy, shortened QT segment,
depressed widened T waves on EKG
Cellular Adaptation Patterns
Disease Etiology Pathophysiology Example
Atrophy Physiologic/pathologic Physio – thymus gland atrophy during Aging brain cells.
Malnutrition childhood Endocrine-dependent (gonads
Pathologic – workload, use, pressure, blood shrink as hormonal stimulation
supply, nutrition, hormonal, nervous decreases
stimulation
Disuse – decrease workload use
Hypertrophy Physiologic – increased Patho cardiac – mechanical signals, trophic Physio - (atrial natriuretic peptide),
demand, stimulation signals (growth factors & vasoactive agents) growth factors, skeletal muscle use,
hormones pregnancy
Pathologic – chronic Patho – hypertension/heart valve
hemodynamic overload dysfunction
Hyperplasia Physiologic Compensatory – Duplication Compensatory – callus formation;
(compensatory & Hormonal – estrogen dependent (uterus, liver regeneration after removal.
hormonal) breast. Hormonal – after ovulation,
, estrogen stimulates endometrium
Pathologic – abnormal Pathologic – excessive hormonal stimulation. to grow & thicken for reception of
proliferation Pronounced enlargement of nucleus, fertilized ovum.
clumping of chromatin, presence of enlarged
nucleoli. Pathologic – endometrial
hyperplasia, excessive menstrual
bleeding. Benign prostatic
hyperplasia
Dysplasia Not true adaptive, aka Not cancer. Do not involve entire thickness of Urterine cells
atypical hyperplasia. epithelium, may be completely reversible if
Abnormal changes in removal of inciting stimulus, certain
size, shape, & hormonal stimuli.
organization of mature When dysplastic changes penetrate
cells. Architecture of basement membrane it is considered
dysplastic tissue can be preinvasive neoplasm (carcinoma in situ)
disorderly.
Metaplasia Reversible replacement GERD damages squamous
of a mature cell type epithelium of esophagus &
(epithelial/mesenchymal) replacement by glandular
from tissue damage, epithelium may better tolerate
repair, & regeneration acidic environment.
Smoker – ciliated columnar
epithelial cells of trachea replaced
by stratified squamous epithelial
cells do not secrete mucus or have
cilia.
Normal Lab Values
WBC 4.5-11 pH 7.35-7.45 PT 11-12.5 Na 135-145 Creatinine 0.5-1.3
Hemoglobin 13-16 PaCO2 35-45 INR <1.6 K 3.5-5 BUN 8-22
Hematocrit 37-49 PO2 80-100 PTT 23-33 Mg 1.2-2 Serum Osmolality 285-295
MCV 80-100 HCO3 22-28 Ca 8.5-10.5 Osmolar GAP <10
Platelet 130-400 Glucos 70-100 Anion GAP <10
e
PO4 3-4.5
MODULE 1
Chapter 2: Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology (Pages: 47-57,68-70, 87-97)
Chapter 3: The Cellular Environment: Fluids and Electrolytes, Acids and Bases (Pages:115-121)
Chapter 12: Cancer Biology (Page: 368)
Cellular Physiology
- Analyze the steps of the action potential.
Resting membrane potential
Extracellular is more positive charge (more cations)
Intracellular is more negative charge (more anions)
Intracellular charge is -70 to -85 millivolts
Voltage gated Na+ channels open & allow Na+ to enter the cell voltage inside the cell moves towards zero (depolarization)
In order for action potential to be successful, it has to depolarize by 15-20 mV (threshold potential) to reach -55 to -65 mV
Repolarization – negatively restored back into cell to -70 to -85 mV
Na+ channels close
K+ channels open
Refractory period – time which cell membrane resists depolarization (occurs during most of the action potential)
Absolute refractory period – membrane will not respond to any stimulus
Relative refractory period – occurs when membrane is repolarizing, will only respond to a very strong stimulus
Hyperpolarized – when resting membrane potential is > -85 mV. Less excitable d/t greater distance btwn resting membrane
potential & threshold potential
Hypopolarized – resting membrane potential is closer to 0, e.g. -65 mV. More excitable b/c resting membrane potential is
closer to threshold potential
,- Hypokalemia (serum outside cell is low)
Intracellular K leaves cell easily
Cell becomes more negative -100mV hyperpolarized
Decrease in neuromuscular excitability
Weakness in smooth muscle, atony, paresthesias, cardiac dysrhythmias
- Hyperkalemia
More ECF K causes cell to become more positively -60 mV, hypopolarized
More excitable, peaked T waves, if ECF continues to rise getting closer to threshold potential, QRS will widen
When resting membrane potential equals = threshold, no action potential will be generated and cardiac standstill will occur,
paralysis and paresthesia may also occur
- Hypocalcemia
Low serum Ca increases cell permeability to Na causing progressive depolarization
Causes resting membrane closer to threshold potential, hypopolarized
More easily excitable, tetany hyperreflexia, circumoral paresthesia, seizures, & dysrhythmias
- Hypercalcemia
Decreases cell permeability to Na
Distance btwn resting and threshold increases, hyperpolarized
Cells are less excitable, weakness, hyporeflexia, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, encephalopathy, shortened QT segment,
depressed widened T waves on EKG
Cellular Adaptation Patterns
Disease Etiology Pathophysiology Example
Atrophy Physiologic/pathologic Physio – thymus gland atrophy during Aging brain cells.
Malnutrition childhood Endocrine-dependent (gonads
Pathologic – workload, use, pressure, blood shrink as hormonal stimulation
supply, nutrition, hormonal, nervous decreases
stimulation
Disuse – decrease workload use
Hypertrophy Physiologic – increased Patho cardiac – mechanical signals, trophic Physio - (atrial natriuretic peptide),
demand, stimulation signals (growth factors & vasoactive agents) growth factors, skeletal muscle use,
hormones pregnancy
Pathologic – chronic Patho – hypertension/heart valve
hemodynamic overload dysfunction
Hyperplasia Physiologic Compensatory – Duplication Compensatory – callus formation;
(compensatory & Hormonal – estrogen dependent (uterus, liver regeneration after removal.
hormonal) breast. Hormonal – after ovulation,
, estrogen stimulates endometrium
Pathologic – abnormal Pathologic – excessive hormonal stimulation. to grow & thicken for reception of
proliferation Pronounced enlargement of nucleus, fertilized ovum.
clumping of chromatin, presence of enlarged
nucleoli. Pathologic – endometrial
hyperplasia, excessive menstrual
bleeding. Benign prostatic
hyperplasia
Dysplasia Not true adaptive, aka Not cancer. Do not involve entire thickness of Urterine cells
atypical hyperplasia. epithelium, may be completely reversible if
Abnormal changes in removal of inciting stimulus, certain
size, shape, & hormonal stimuli.
organization of mature When dysplastic changes penetrate
cells. Architecture of basement membrane it is considered
dysplastic tissue can be preinvasive neoplasm (carcinoma in situ)
disorderly.
Metaplasia Reversible replacement GERD damages squamous
of a mature cell type epithelium of esophagus &
(epithelial/mesenchymal) replacement by glandular
from tissue damage, epithelium may better tolerate
repair, & regeneration acidic environment.
Smoker – ciliated columnar
epithelial cells of trachea replaced
by stratified squamous epithelial
cells do not secrete mucus or have
cilia.
