CHAPTER 2
AN INTRODUCTION TO COST TERMS AND PURPOSES
2-1 A cost object is anything for which a separate measurement of costs is desired. Examples
include a product, a service, a project, a customer, a brand category, an activity, and a
department.
2-2 Direct costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object and can be traced to
that cost object in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way.
Indirect costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object but cannot be traced
to that cost object in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way.
Cost assignment is a general term that encompasses the assignment of both direct costs
and indirect costs to a cost object. Direct costs are traced to a cost object while indirect costs are
allocated to a cost object.
2-3 Managers believe that direct costs that are traced to a particular cost object are more
accurately assigned to that cost object than are indirect allocated costs. When costs are allocated,
managers are less certain whether the cost allocation base accurately measures the resources
demanded by a cost object. Managers prefer to use more accurate costs in their decisions.
2-4 Factors affecting the classification of a cost as direct or indirect include
• the materiality of the cost in question,
• available information-gathering technology,
• design of operations
2-5 A variable cost changes in total in proportion to changes in the related level of total
activity or volume. An example is a sales commission that is a percentage of each sales revenue
dollar.
A fixed cost remains unchanged in total for a given time period, despite wide changes in
the related level of total activity or volume. An example is the leasing cost of a machine that is
unchanged for a given time period (such as a year) regardless of the number of units of product
produced on the machine.
2-6 A cost driver is a variable, such as the level of activity or volume, that causally affects
total costs over a given time span. A change in the cost driver results in a change in the level of
total costs. For example, the number of vehicles assembled is a driver of the costs of steering
wheels on a motor-vehicle assembly line.
2-7 The relevant range is the band of normal activity level or volume in which there is a
specific relationship between the level of activity or volume and the cost in question. Costs are
described as variable or fixed with respect to a particular relevant range.
2-8 A unit cost is computed by dividing some amount of total costs (the numerator) by the
related number of units (the denominator). In many cases, the numerator will include a fixed cost
that will not change despite changes in the denominator. It is erroneous in those cases to multiply
the unit cost by activity or volume change to predict changes in total costs at different activity or
volume levels.
2-1
, 2-9 Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and Ashtonnents and convert them
into various finished goods, for example automotive and textile companies.
Merchandising-sector companies purchase and then sell tangible products without
changing their basic form, for example retailing or distribution.
Service-sector companies provide services or intangible products to their customers, for
example, legal advice or audits.
2-10 Manufacturing companies have one or more of the following three types of inventory:
1. Direct materials inventory. Direct materials in stock and awaiting use in the
manufacturing process.
2. Work-in-process inventory. Goods partially worked on but not yet completed. Also
called work in progress.
3. Finished goods inventory. Goods completed but not yet sold.
2-11 Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are considered as assets in the balance
sheet when they are incurred and that become cost of goods sold when the product is sold. These
costs are included in work-in-process and finished goods inventory (they are “inventoried”) to
accumulate the costs of creating these assets.
Period costs are all costs in the income statement other than cost of goods sold. These
costs are treated as expenses of the accounting period in which they are incurred because they are
expected not to benefit future periods (because there is not sufficient evidence to conclude that
such benefit exists). Expensing these costs immediately best matches expenses to revenues.
2-12 Direct material costs are the acquisition costs of all materials that eventually become part
of the cost object (work in process and then finished goods), and can be traced to the cost object
in an economically feasible way.
Direct manufacturing labor costs include the compensation of all manufacturing labor
that can be traced to the cost object (work in process and then finished goods) in an economically
feasible way.
Manufacturing overhead costs are all manufacturing costs that are related to the cost
object (work in process and then finished goods), but cannot be traced to that cost object in an
economically feasible way.
Prime costs are all direct manufacturing costs (direct material and direct manufacturing
labor).
Conversion costs are all manufacturing costs other than direct material costs.
2-13 Overtime premium is the wage rate paid to workers (for both direct labor and indirect
labor) in excess of their straight-time wage rates.
Idle time is a subclassification of indirect labor that represents wages paid for
unproductive time caused by lack of orders, machine breakdowns, material shortages, poor
scheduling, and the like.
2-14 A product cost is the sum of the costs assigned to a product for a specific purpose.
Purposes for computing a product cost include
• pricing and product mix decisions,
• contracting with government agencies, and
• preparing financial statements for external reporting under generally accepted
accounting principles.
2-2
AN INTRODUCTION TO COST TERMS AND PURPOSES
2-1 A cost object is anything for which a separate measurement of costs is desired. Examples
include a product, a service, a project, a customer, a brand category, an activity, and a
department.
2-2 Direct costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object and can be traced to
that cost object in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way.
Indirect costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object but cannot be traced
to that cost object in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way.
Cost assignment is a general term that encompasses the assignment of both direct costs
and indirect costs to a cost object. Direct costs are traced to a cost object while indirect costs are
allocated to a cost object.
2-3 Managers believe that direct costs that are traced to a particular cost object are more
accurately assigned to that cost object than are indirect allocated costs. When costs are allocated,
managers are less certain whether the cost allocation base accurately measures the resources
demanded by a cost object. Managers prefer to use more accurate costs in their decisions.
2-4 Factors affecting the classification of a cost as direct or indirect include
• the materiality of the cost in question,
• available information-gathering technology,
• design of operations
2-5 A variable cost changes in total in proportion to changes in the related level of total
activity or volume. An example is a sales commission that is a percentage of each sales revenue
dollar.
A fixed cost remains unchanged in total for a given time period, despite wide changes in
the related level of total activity or volume. An example is the leasing cost of a machine that is
unchanged for a given time period (such as a year) regardless of the number of units of product
produced on the machine.
2-6 A cost driver is a variable, such as the level of activity or volume, that causally affects
total costs over a given time span. A change in the cost driver results in a change in the level of
total costs. For example, the number of vehicles assembled is a driver of the costs of steering
wheels on a motor-vehicle assembly line.
2-7 The relevant range is the band of normal activity level or volume in which there is a
specific relationship between the level of activity or volume and the cost in question. Costs are
described as variable or fixed with respect to a particular relevant range.
2-8 A unit cost is computed by dividing some amount of total costs (the numerator) by the
related number of units (the denominator). In many cases, the numerator will include a fixed cost
that will not change despite changes in the denominator. It is erroneous in those cases to multiply
the unit cost by activity or volume change to predict changes in total costs at different activity or
volume levels.
2-1
, 2-9 Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and Ashtonnents and convert them
into various finished goods, for example automotive and textile companies.
Merchandising-sector companies purchase and then sell tangible products without
changing their basic form, for example retailing or distribution.
Service-sector companies provide services or intangible products to their customers, for
example, legal advice or audits.
2-10 Manufacturing companies have one or more of the following three types of inventory:
1. Direct materials inventory. Direct materials in stock and awaiting use in the
manufacturing process.
2. Work-in-process inventory. Goods partially worked on but not yet completed. Also
called work in progress.
3. Finished goods inventory. Goods completed but not yet sold.
2-11 Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are considered as assets in the balance
sheet when they are incurred and that become cost of goods sold when the product is sold. These
costs are included in work-in-process and finished goods inventory (they are “inventoried”) to
accumulate the costs of creating these assets.
Period costs are all costs in the income statement other than cost of goods sold. These
costs are treated as expenses of the accounting period in which they are incurred because they are
expected not to benefit future periods (because there is not sufficient evidence to conclude that
such benefit exists). Expensing these costs immediately best matches expenses to revenues.
2-12 Direct material costs are the acquisition costs of all materials that eventually become part
of the cost object (work in process and then finished goods), and can be traced to the cost object
in an economically feasible way.
Direct manufacturing labor costs include the compensation of all manufacturing labor
that can be traced to the cost object (work in process and then finished goods) in an economically
feasible way.
Manufacturing overhead costs are all manufacturing costs that are related to the cost
object (work in process and then finished goods), but cannot be traced to that cost object in an
economically feasible way.
Prime costs are all direct manufacturing costs (direct material and direct manufacturing
labor).
Conversion costs are all manufacturing costs other than direct material costs.
2-13 Overtime premium is the wage rate paid to workers (for both direct labor and indirect
labor) in excess of their straight-time wage rates.
Idle time is a subclassification of indirect labor that represents wages paid for
unproductive time caused by lack of orders, machine breakdowns, material shortages, poor
scheduling, and the like.
2-14 A product cost is the sum of the costs assigned to a product for a specific purpose.
Purposes for computing a product cost include
• pricing and product mix decisions,
• contracting with government agencies, and
• preparing financial statements for external reporting under generally accepted
accounting principles.
2-2
