Evaluate the degree to which sustainability is possible when it comes to managing the global
commons of Antarctica and the seas around it (20 marks)
Antarctica is the worlds only true wilderness and is one of the 4 main global commons. In recent
time this environment has become under increased threat from a range of anthropogenic and
physical activities. As a result a range of strategies have been implemented as a way to mitigate
these effects. These strategies are conducted with the help of NGOs. They could be seen as highly
sustainable in some areas and not as sustainable in other areas of the Antarctic management.
The 19th century saw Norwegian, British and American exploitation of blue and right whales for oil
and whalebone. By 1985, stocks were so dangerously low that most commercial whaling ceased.
Fishing followed similar trends- Japan and Russia overexploit rock cod and krill, which are central to
the Antarctic food web and their conservation is essential. Regulations were introduced to save the
whales, but it was far too late. Species are now near extinction. Fishing limits are also exceeded, and
it is believed that the actual amounts are 5 times higher than the official figures. The CCAMLR was
created in order to monitor fishing and protect an area of 94 000 km2, being a huge success. It has
also reduced seabird mortality, vital to the food chain by reducing the death from thousands of birds
annually to almost zero, but only in the regulated fisheries. It has been sustainable to a great degree.
Climate change and ocean acidification have also had an impact on krill. Krill cannot reproduce in
higher acidity, this could be fatal for the animals feeding on krill- penguin and whales. It could result
in collapse of the ecosystem by further reducing the numbers of whales and penguins due to the
interruption in the food chain. NGOs including Greenpeace have tried to solve the issue by rising
awareness with campaign such as the International Penguin day or putting pressure and trying to
stop governments from emitting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to try and reduce ocean acidity
levels. However, the ocean is 2,5 times more acidic than normal and these measures are not highly
effective and decrease the sustainability of the governance, therefore the level of control over the
oceans is very low.
Another way of governing Antarctica is through the Antarctic treaty and the Protocol of
Environmental Protection mentioned above. The Antarctic treaty deliberately omitted any reference
to mineral extraction and in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental Protection was negotiated to
prohibit all forms of mineral extraction, being the most sustainable measure conducted to protect
Antarctica as it ensures peaceful and collaborative research, nuclear free zones, military free zones
and free exchange of information. The only activity on minerals is scientific research, giving
knowledge to the world and a better understanding of the continent. The Protocol on Environmental
Protection also prohibits the introduction of new species unnatural to the environment. This could
change when the protocol is revisited in 2048. There have been signs that some countries like China
and Russia want to establish themselves on Antarctica so they can extract minerals in the future.
However, due to tourism the Mediterranean mussel was found near the coasts of Antarctica, being
an example of failure to conduct sustainable governance. Tourism has been rising steadily after a fall
between 2011 and 2012. Scientists describe it as highly unsustainable and dangerous as tourists
leave footprints that stay for years and could also scare the animals. Tourist ships are highly pollutive
and are a huge intrusion to the ecosystem. In order to limit the negative impacts regulations have
been formed by the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators. It allows only 1 ship to
land at a time, reducing the number of tourists on land. This is an example of a sustainable measure.
However, the number of tourists is seen to rise once again and the future of tourism is very
promising. This could lead to devastation of the system.
commons of Antarctica and the seas around it (20 marks)
Antarctica is the worlds only true wilderness and is one of the 4 main global commons. In recent
time this environment has become under increased threat from a range of anthropogenic and
physical activities. As a result a range of strategies have been implemented as a way to mitigate
these effects. These strategies are conducted with the help of NGOs. They could be seen as highly
sustainable in some areas and not as sustainable in other areas of the Antarctic management.
The 19th century saw Norwegian, British and American exploitation of blue and right whales for oil
and whalebone. By 1985, stocks were so dangerously low that most commercial whaling ceased.
Fishing followed similar trends- Japan and Russia overexploit rock cod and krill, which are central to
the Antarctic food web and their conservation is essential. Regulations were introduced to save the
whales, but it was far too late. Species are now near extinction. Fishing limits are also exceeded, and
it is believed that the actual amounts are 5 times higher than the official figures. The CCAMLR was
created in order to monitor fishing and protect an area of 94 000 km2, being a huge success. It has
also reduced seabird mortality, vital to the food chain by reducing the death from thousands of birds
annually to almost zero, but only in the regulated fisheries. It has been sustainable to a great degree.
Climate change and ocean acidification have also had an impact on krill. Krill cannot reproduce in
higher acidity, this could be fatal for the animals feeding on krill- penguin and whales. It could result
in collapse of the ecosystem by further reducing the numbers of whales and penguins due to the
interruption in the food chain. NGOs including Greenpeace have tried to solve the issue by rising
awareness with campaign such as the International Penguin day or putting pressure and trying to
stop governments from emitting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to try and reduce ocean acidity
levels. However, the ocean is 2,5 times more acidic than normal and these measures are not highly
effective and decrease the sustainability of the governance, therefore the level of control over the
oceans is very low.
Another way of governing Antarctica is through the Antarctic treaty and the Protocol of
Environmental Protection mentioned above. The Antarctic treaty deliberately omitted any reference
to mineral extraction and in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental Protection was negotiated to
prohibit all forms of mineral extraction, being the most sustainable measure conducted to protect
Antarctica as it ensures peaceful and collaborative research, nuclear free zones, military free zones
and free exchange of information. The only activity on minerals is scientific research, giving
knowledge to the world and a better understanding of the continent. The Protocol on Environmental
Protection also prohibits the introduction of new species unnatural to the environment. This could
change when the protocol is revisited in 2048. There have been signs that some countries like China
and Russia want to establish themselves on Antarctica so they can extract minerals in the future.
However, due to tourism the Mediterranean mussel was found near the coasts of Antarctica, being
an example of failure to conduct sustainable governance. Tourism has been rising steadily after a fall
between 2011 and 2012. Scientists describe it as highly unsustainable and dangerous as tourists
leave footprints that stay for years and could also scare the animals. Tourist ships are highly pollutive
and are a huge intrusion to the ecosystem. In order to limit the negative impacts regulations have
been formed by the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators. It allows only 1 ship to
land at a time, reducing the number of tourists on land. This is an example of a sustainable measure.
However, the number of tourists is seen to rise once again and the future of tourism is very
promising. This could lead to devastation of the system.
