How did policing become a problem for ethnic minorities in twentieth-century Britain?
Ethnic minorities living in twentieth-century Britain were indefinitely faced with a
paramount policing problem as they began to become illustrated as the ‘folk devil’ in
the media. This enabled negative and unfair policing to become the norm for those
from ethnic backgrounds. In the following essay, I will outline how policing became a
problem for ethnic minorities in twentieth-century Britain through a reference to the
rise in black campaigners and riots against the police’s misuse of correct policing
strategies such as: frequent stop and searches, passport checks, technology, and
the media.
‘Ethnic minorities’ are individuals from non-white backgrounds, primarily black and
Asian groups (BAME). The term ‘Black’ also emerged as a political term used for all
ethnic groups faced with identifying as the ‘other’ particularly in majority White
societies. Being ‘Black’ in Britain is outlined by Mirza as a ‘state of ‘becoming’
(radicalised): a process of consciousness, when colour becomes the defining factor
about who you are. Located through your ‘otherness’ a ‘conscious coalition’
emerges: a self-consciously constructed space where identity is inscribed by a
natural identification but a political kinship.’ 1
To begin, ethnic minorities during the twentieth century are summarised as being
‘over policed [and] under protected.’2 The abuse of police power and the failure of
the police to investigate crimes against those from these ethnic backgrounds created
1
Mirza, Heidi Safia, ed. Black British Feminism: A Reader. (London: Routledge,
1997), p.1
2
Bridges, Lee. The Lawrence Inquiry. Incompetence, Corruption, and Institutional Racism.
Journal of Law and Society 26, no. 3 (1999): 298–322. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1410747.
1
,tension between the two groups. Thus, an inevitable rise in black campaigners
mainly led to the creation of a ‘mugging panic’ in the media. Research through the
years has suggested that the delivery of policing became a significant problem for
ethnic minorities in twentieth-century Britain. It is expressed that, during this period,
BAME (Black, Asian, and minority ethnic) were faced with ‘stitch-ups, brutalities, and
deaths at the hands of police, aided by a racist judicial process and a compliant
press.’3 Furthermore, Hall et al. (1978) identified how black people were subjected to
extraordinary policing which demonised them and created this idea of ‘folk devil’. At
the forefront against racist policing was the Black British journal publications, Race
Today (1969-1985), who supported and fought back against them. The publications
outlined the struggles faced by Black people against the police.
Reports also demonstrate countless occurrences of direct conflict between police
and ethnic minorities whereby excessive enforcement, harassment and brutality
have been used by the police. The HMIC reported that: ‘Racial discrimination, both
direct and indirect, and harassment are endemic within our society and the police
service is no exception . . .’ and that there was ‘a direct and vital link between
internal culture in the way people are treated and external performance.’ 4 It can also
be summarised that ‘police practices are disproportionately unfavourable to racially
defined categories of the population.’ 5
The isolation of groups by police in society occurred long before the twentieth
century. The first occurrence being in the Victorian era whereby ‘youths’ were
3
Elliott-Cooper, Adam. “Challenging British (In)Justice.” In Here to Stay, Here to Fight: A
Race Today Anthology, edited by Paul Field, Robin Bunce, Leila Hassan, and Margaret
Peacock, 141–74. Pluto Press, 2019. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpbnn5q.10, p. 141
4
HMIC (1997), p. 18.
5
Feuchtwang, (1992), p. 95.
2
, identified as a problem for society and the police were able to create this fear of
crime and youths which resulted in creating a ‘self-reinforcing negative spiral.’ 6 As a
result, youths during this period became resistant to police control which made other
adults in society feel anxious and unstable. Consequently, these groups yearned for
complete control over this new ‘threat’ to society; something we still see to this day.
It is pertinent to note that, the rising problem of policing for those of ethnic
backgrounds did not begin in the twentieth century but did continue to spiral out of
control during this time. Undoubtedly, tensions and problems between the police and
ethnic minorities are long withstanding, even before the twentieth century. 7 The
historical roots of institutional racism began to appear following the ‘historical
development of colonial societies which was central to the reproduction of British
imperialism,’8 which in turn, created a sense of British ‘nationalism’. As a result, black
settlement in Britain led to the ‘racial segmentation in the labour market, residential
segregation, legislation to control immigration, and the policing of black working-
class areas.’9 After World War II, there was a major influx of black people into
England, which led to a shortage of jobs and accommodation. This period (known as
the Windrush), in combination with the 1958 riots, led to political parties voicing their
racialist legislations – particularly because this group of black citizens ‘were
unreconstructed newcomers, aliens for ever.’10
6
Wells, H, Wills, D. Individualism and identity: Resistance to speed cameras in the UK.
Surveillance and Society 6(3): 259–274, (2009).
7
Gilroy, Paul. Police and Thieves (in The Empire Strikes Back: Race and Racism in 70s
Britain), (1982).
8
Ibid.,
9
Ibid.,
10
Jackson, Nicole. A N[***]r in the New England": "Sus", the Brixton riot, and citizenship',
African and Black Diaspora, 8. 2 (2015), p.160.
3
Ethnic minorities living in twentieth-century Britain were indefinitely faced with a
paramount policing problem as they began to become illustrated as the ‘folk devil’ in
the media. This enabled negative and unfair policing to become the norm for those
from ethnic backgrounds. In the following essay, I will outline how policing became a
problem for ethnic minorities in twentieth-century Britain through a reference to the
rise in black campaigners and riots against the police’s misuse of correct policing
strategies such as: frequent stop and searches, passport checks, technology, and
the media.
‘Ethnic minorities’ are individuals from non-white backgrounds, primarily black and
Asian groups (BAME). The term ‘Black’ also emerged as a political term used for all
ethnic groups faced with identifying as the ‘other’ particularly in majority White
societies. Being ‘Black’ in Britain is outlined by Mirza as a ‘state of ‘becoming’
(radicalised): a process of consciousness, when colour becomes the defining factor
about who you are. Located through your ‘otherness’ a ‘conscious coalition’
emerges: a self-consciously constructed space where identity is inscribed by a
natural identification but a political kinship.’ 1
To begin, ethnic minorities during the twentieth century are summarised as being
‘over policed [and] under protected.’2 The abuse of police power and the failure of
the police to investigate crimes against those from these ethnic backgrounds created
1
Mirza, Heidi Safia, ed. Black British Feminism: A Reader. (London: Routledge,
1997), p.1
2
Bridges, Lee. The Lawrence Inquiry. Incompetence, Corruption, and Institutional Racism.
Journal of Law and Society 26, no. 3 (1999): 298–322. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1410747.
1
,tension between the two groups. Thus, an inevitable rise in black campaigners
mainly led to the creation of a ‘mugging panic’ in the media. Research through the
years has suggested that the delivery of policing became a significant problem for
ethnic minorities in twentieth-century Britain. It is expressed that, during this period,
BAME (Black, Asian, and minority ethnic) were faced with ‘stitch-ups, brutalities, and
deaths at the hands of police, aided by a racist judicial process and a compliant
press.’3 Furthermore, Hall et al. (1978) identified how black people were subjected to
extraordinary policing which demonised them and created this idea of ‘folk devil’. At
the forefront against racist policing was the Black British journal publications, Race
Today (1969-1985), who supported and fought back against them. The publications
outlined the struggles faced by Black people against the police.
Reports also demonstrate countless occurrences of direct conflict between police
and ethnic minorities whereby excessive enforcement, harassment and brutality
have been used by the police. The HMIC reported that: ‘Racial discrimination, both
direct and indirect, and harassment are endemic within our society and the police
service is no exception . . .’ and that there was ‘a direct and vital link between
internal culture in the way people are treated and external performance.’ 4 It can also
be summarised that ‘police practices are disproportionately unfavourable to racially
defined categories of the population.’ 5
The isolation of groups by police in society occurred long before the twentieth
century. The first occurrence being in the Victorian era whereby ‘youths’ were
3
Elliott-Cooper, Adam. “Challenging British (In)Justice.” In Here to Stay, Here to Fight: A
Race Today Anthology, edited by Paul Field, Robin Bunce, Leila Hassan, and Margaret
Peacock, 141–74. Pluto Press, 2019. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpbnn5q.10, p. 141
4
HMIC (1997), p. 18.
5
Feuchtwang, (1992), p. 95.
2
, identified as a problem for society and the police were able to create this fear of
crime and youths which resulted in creating a ‘self-reinforcing negative spiral.’ 6 As a
result, youths during this period became resistant to police control which made other
adults in society feel anxious and unstable. Consequently, these groups yearned for
complete control over this new ‘threat’ to society; something we still see to this day.
It is pertinent to note that, the rising problem of policing for those of ethnic
backgrounds did not begin in the twentieth century but did continue to spiral out of
control during this time. Undoubtedly, tensions and problems between the police and
ethnic minorities are long withstanding, even before the twentieth century. 7 The
historical roots of institutional racism began to appear following the ‘historical
development of colonial societies which was central to the reproduction of British
imperialism,’8 which in turn, created a sense of British ‘nationalism’. As a result, black
settlement in Britain led to the ‘racial segmentation in the labour market, residential
segregation, legislation to control immigration, and the policing of black working-
class areas.’9 After World War II, there was a major influx of black people into
England, which led to a shortage of jobs and accommodation. This period (known as
the Windrush), in combination with the 1958 riots, led to political parties voicing their
racialist legislations – particularly because this group of black citizens ‘were
unreconstructed newcomers, aliens for ever.’10
6
Wells, H, Wills, D. Individualism and identity: Resistance to speed cameras in the UK.
Surveillance and Society 6(3): 259–274, (2009).
7
Gilroy, Paul. Police and Thieves (in The Empire Strikes Back: Race and Racism in 70s
Britain), (1982).
8
Ibid.,
9
Ibid.,
10
Jackson, Nicole. A N[***]r in the New England": "Sus", the Brixton riot, and citizenship',
African and Black Diaspora, 8. 2 (2015), p.160.
3
