Topic 11 - Animal Physiology
11.1 - Antibody Production
11.1.1 - Self vs Non-Self
Body can distinguish between body cells (self) and foreign material (non-self).
All nucleated cells have self-markers (surface proteins to identify as self).
Self-tolerance: immune system normally doesn’t react to cells.
Antigen: any substance that triggers an immune response (the self-markers of foreign
objects, i.e. non-self)
Recognised by lymphocytes (which trigger antibody production).
Red blood cells do not possess self-markers (hence transfer is possible).
However, red blood cells possess basic antigens that limit blood transfusion potential.
11.1.2 - Pathogenesis
Disease: condition that disturbs normal functioning of body
Illness: deterioration of normal health
Pathogen: an agent that causes disease (microorganism, virus)
Species-speci c: cause disease in speci c species.
Zoonotic disease: can be transmitted from animals to humans (e.g. rabies)
Vector: organisms that spread disease without being a ected themselves (e.g.
mosquitoes?)
11.1.3 - Clonal Selection
Clonal selection: cytokines stimulate B cells that produce appropriate antibodies to multiply
Pathogens typically possess many di erent antigens, hence many di erent antibodies are
produced (polyclonal activation).
11.1.4 - Antibodies
Plasma cells are short-lived and secrete high numbers of antibodies.
Antibody functions (detect and remove pathogens):
• Precipitation
• Agglutination
• Neutralisation
• In ammation
• Complement protein activation
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, 11.1.5 - Immunity
Delay period: period between initial exposure to pathogen and production of large quantities of
antibodies (clonal expansion takes time)
If pathogen can populate quickly during delay period, disease is caused.
Memory cells: long-living plasma cells (unlike most plasma cells) that continually produce
antibodies.
Upon second exposure to pathogen, memory cells will produce antibodies faster.
11.1.6 - Allergens - NOT NEEDED?
Allergen: substance that triggers immune response despite not being (intrinsically) harmful.
Anaphylaxis: severe allergic reaction (potentially fatal)
11.1.7 - Vaccinations
Vaccination: inducing long-term immunity by stimulating memory cell production
• Vaccine (inactive pathogen) is injected into body
• Body responds by producing memory cells
• Body is prepared for potential exposure to active pathogen
Booster: a type of vaccine that serves to maintain production of memory cells
Epidemic: increased occurrence of infection within a region
Pandemic: epidemic that has spread to large geographical areas
Herd immunity: where an individual who is not immune is protected from pathogen by the large
number of immune individuals
Small pox: rst disease in humans eradicated by vaccination
Epidemiology: study of patterns/causes/e ects of disease/health conditions.
11.2 - Movement
11.2.1 - Skeletal Framework
Movement systems:
• Skeletal (provide structure to be pulled)
• Muscular (deliver force)
• Nervous (deliver signals)
Types of skeletal systems:
• Endoskeleton (internal)
• Bones connected to each other by ligaments
• Bones connected to muscles by tendons
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11.1 - Antibody Production
11.1.1 - Self vs Non-Self
Body can distinguish between body cells (self) and foreign material (non-self).
All nucleated cells have self-markers (surface proteins to identify as self).
Self-tolerance: immune system normally doesn’t react to cells.
Antigen: any substance that triggers an immune response (the self-markers of foreign
objects, i.e. non-self)
Recognised by lymphocytes (which trigger antibody production).
Red blood cells do not possess self-markers (hence transfer is possible).
However, red blood cells possess basic antigens that limit blood transfusion potential.
11.1.2 - Pathogenesis
Disease: condition that disturbs normal functioning of body
Illness: deterioration of normal health
Pathogen: an agent that causes disease (microorganism, virus)
Species-speci c: cause disease in speci c species.
Zoonotic disease: can be transmitted from animals to humans (e.g. rabies)
Vector: organisms that spread disease without being a ected themselves (e.g.
mosquitoes?)
11.1.3 - Clonal Selection
Clonal selection: cytokines stimulate B cells that produce appropriate antibodies to multiply
Pathogens typically possess many di erent antigens, hence many di erent antibodies are
produced (polyclonal activation).
11.1.4 - Antibodies
Plasma cells are short-lived and secrete high numbers of antibodies.
Antibody functions (detect and remove pathogens):
• Precipitation
• Agglutination
• Neutralisation
• In ammation
• Complement protein activation
fl fi ff fi ff ff
, 11.1.5 - Immunity
Delay period: period between initial exposure to pathogen and production of large quantities of
antibodies (clonal expansion takes time)
If pathogen can populate quickly during delay period, disease is caused.
Memory cells: long-living plasma cells (unlike most plasma cells) that continually produce
antibodies.
Upon second exposure to pathogen, memory cells will produce antibodies faster.
11.1.6 - Allergens - NOT NEEDED?
Allergen: substance that triggers immune response despite not being (intrinsically) harmful.
Anaphylaxis: severe allergic reaction (potentially fatal)
11.1.7 - Vaccinations
Vaccination: inducing long-term immunity by stimulating memory cell production
• Vaccine (inactive pathogen) is injected into body
• Body responds by producing memory cells
• Body is prepared for potential exposure to active pathogen
Booster: a type of vaccine that serves to maintain production of memory cells
Epidemic: increased occurrence of infection within a region
Pandemic: epidemic that has spread to large geographical areas
Herd immunity: where an individual who is not immune is protected from pathogen by the large
number of immune individuals
Small pox: rst disease in humans eradicated by vaccination
Epidemiology: study of patterns/causes/e ects of disease/health conditions.
11.2 - Movement
11.2.1 - Skeletal Framework
Movement systems:
• Skeletal (provide structure to be pulled)
• Muscular (deliver force)
• Nervous (deliver signals)
Types of skeletal systems:
• Endoskeleton (internal)
• Bones connected to each other by ligaments
• Bones connected to muscles by tendons
fi ff
