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Cardiovascular
Oxygenation and perfusion
Hypoxemia: Decreased oxygen levels in arterial blood
Hypoxia: Decreased oxygen levels in body tissues
⬆ Do not mix both up; Especially important in ABG reading
Ischemia: Body tissues not getting enough oxygen
Necrosis: Death of body tissues
Diagnostic Tests
Echocardiogram (Ultrasound of the heart): Evaluation of the structure and function
of the heart
Not appropriate for obese patients and COPD patients (A lot of air between
heart and chest cavity)
Cardiovascular 1
, ECG: Graphic representation of electrical impulses the heart generates during the
cardiac cycles
Interfering factors: Electrolyte imbalances, drugs (E.g. digitalis, quinidine,
barbiturates)
Angiography: Visualization of heart chambers, arteries and great vessels
Often used to evaluate patients with chest pain
Patients with positive stress test: To locate region of coronary occlusion
⬆ Stress test: Evaluate whether the heart is getting adequate oxygenated
blood during the stress
Nuclear cardiac studies: Usage of radioactive isotopes to capture images of the
heart, showing how blood flows to heart and how it pumps while under rest and
stress (Stress test)
Procedures to treat diseases
Clot prevention and lysis drugs
Angioplasty: Placing a balloon at the stenotic area to widen a narrowed/obstructed
blood vessel
Endarterectomy: Surgical procedure to remove plaque material or blockage in lining
of an artery
Stent placement: Holds an artery open
CABG and peripheral bypass
Coronary artery bypass graft: Arteries/Veins from elsewhere are grafted to
coronary arteries to bypass artherosclerotic narrowing and improve blood
supply to heart
Peripheral bypass: Treat blockages in legs
Amputation: Often for a vascular reason if not for diabetes or trauma (E.g. Severe
blockages)
Cardiovascular 2
, Disorders
📢 Disorders of the arteries and veins are completely different matters; Do not
mix them up
📢 Artherosclerosis: Hardening of arterial walls due to aging
Atherosclerosis: Damage to inner arteries by plaque deposits
Arterial disorders
Artherosclerosis (CAD and peripheral): Thickening and hardening of arterial walls
Consequences of artherosclerosis: Decreased blood flow and decreased
elasticity
Difference between acute and chronic relates to the time it takes to develop
collateral vessels and the amount of ischemia, pain and necrosis
Hypertension: BP over 140/90 mmHg
Aneurysm: Localized abnormal dilation of blood vessel(s)
Usually arteries are the ones with aneurysm
Raynaud’s disease: Usually triggered by cold temperatures, anxiety or stress,
occurs whereby blood vessels goes into a temporary spasm, which blocks the flow
of blood
Affected areas change color to white, then blue, and back to red when
bloodflow returns
Buerger’s disease: Chronic, recurring, inflammatory, vascular occlusive disease of
the peripheral arteries and veins of extremities
Blood vessels swells, preventing blood flow and causing clots to form. This can
lead to pain, tissue damage and possibly even gangrene
Venous disorders
Cardiovascular 3
Cardiovascular
Oxygenation and perfusion
Hypoxemia: Decreased oxygen levels in arterial blood
Hypoxia: Decreased oxygen levels in body tissues
⬆ Do not mix both up; Especially important in ABG reading
Ischemia: Body tissues not getting enough oxygen
Necrosis: Death of body tissues
Diagnostic Tests
Echocardiogram (Ultrasound of the heart): Evaluation of the structure and function
of the heart
Not appropriate for obese patients and COPD patients (A lot of air between
heart and chest cavity)
Cardiovascular 1
, ECG: Graphic representation of electrical impulses the heart generates during the
cardiac cycles
Interfering factors: Electrolyte imbalances, drugs (E.g. digitalis, quinidine,
barbiturates)
Angiography: Visualization of heart chambers, arteries and great vessels
Often used to evaluate patients with chest pain
Patients with positive stress test: To locate region of coronary occlusion
⬆ Stress test: Evaluate whether the heart is getting adequate oxygenated
blood during the stress
Nuclear cardiac studies: Usage of radioactive isotopes to capture images of the
heart, showing how blood flows to heart and how it pumps while under rest and
stress (Stress test)
Procedures to treat diseases
Clot prevention and lysis drugs
Angioplasty: Placing a balloon at the stenotic area to widen a narrowed/obstructed
blood vessel
Endarterectomy: Surgical procedure to remove plaque material or blockage in lining
of an artery
Stent placement: Holds an artery open
CABG and peripheral bypass
Coronary artery bypass graft: Arteries/Veins from elsewhere are grafted to
coronary arteries to bypass artherosclerotic narrowing and improve blood
supply to heart
Peripheral bypass: Treat blockages in legs
Amputation: Often for a vascular reason if not for diabetes or trauma (E.g. Severe
blockages)
Cardiovascular 2
, Disorders
📢 Disorders of the arteries and veins are completely different matters; Do not
mix them up
📢 Artherosclerosis: Hardening of arterial walls due to aging
Atherosclerosis: Damage to inner arteries by plaque deposits
Arterial disorders
Artherosclerosis (CAD and peripheral): Thickening and hardening of arterial walls
Consequences of artherosclerosis: Decreased blood flow and decreased
elasticity
Difference between acute and chronic relates to the time it takes to develop
collateral vessels and the amount of ischemia, pain and necrosis
Hypertension: BP over 140/90 mmHg
Aneurysm: Localized abnormal dilation of blood vessel(s)
Usually arteries are the ones with aneurysm
Raynaud’s disease: Usually triggered by cold temperatures, anxiety or stress,
occurs whereby blood vessels goes into a temporary spasm, which blocks the flow
of blood
Affected areas change color to white, then blue, and back to red when
bloodflow returns
Buerger’s disease: Chronic, recurring, inflammatory, vascular occlusive disease of
the peripheral arteries and veins of extremities
Blood vessels swells, preventing blood flow and causing clots to form. This can
lead to pain, tissue damage and possibly even gangrene
Venous disorders
Cardiovascular 3
