Know in general for every used exemplary specimen:
• Name and recognize the main structures of all the discussed model organisms;
• Know the functions of the main structures;
• Describe the evolutionary trend underlying the position of the model organism in the
phylogenetic tree.
Module 0: course introduction and overview
Learning objectives:
I. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of the major animal clades;
II. Understand the evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships among and between different
animal groups;
III. Describe structure-function relationships of the major animal clades at the organ, tissue and
cellular level;
IV. Compare and contrast the adaptations required for living in interaction with a specific
environment;
V. Develop the ability to perform directed dissections and independent study of animal
specimens representative of major phyla or classes.
Evolution = the biological concept that refers to the process of change in all forms of life over
successive generations.
Adaptation = the mechanism by which organisms have adjusted to new environments or to changes
in their current environment. May also refer to a specific trait that made the species a better fit to
the environment.
Phylogeny = a hypothetical relationship between groups of organisms being compared.
Taxonomy = refers to classifying organisms into categories and providing them with a unique,
scientific name.
Oder of ranks:
• Domain → bacteria, archea of eukarya
• Kingdom = primary division of animals
• Phylum
• Class
• Oder
• Rank
• Family
• Genus
• Species
Module 1 evolution and phylogeny
1
,Learning objectives:
I. Identify and describe features of objects, based on which you can classify them
systematically;
II. Build a simple phylogenetic tree based on morphological or molecular traits;
III. Interpret a given phylogenetic tree.
clade
Derived trade
Root = commons ancestor for which the taxons or species derive
Node= common ancestor of the species that come after the branching point
Species ( and taxon) → can’t have representable baby’s
Derive trade = trade that’s shared among groups of organisms
Clade = all evolutionary descendants of a certain common ancestor
Sister groups = species that are most related to each other with an equal distance to the other
organisms in the clade
Outer group = organism/ taxon that shares an ancestor with all of the other ones, but doesn’t share
any of the derived trades
Some terms:
Convergent evolution= feature that are developed multiple times in different branches of the tree
Binomial = a name consisting of two parts, like Tyrannosaurus rex
Analogue = any organ or part similar in function to one in a different animal, but of unlike origin
(andere oorsprong)
Homologous = structures or other parts in different species that resemble each other because of
origin by common decent
Phylogenetic = the line of descent of a species, an approach to classification that attempts to
reconstruct evolutionary genealogies and the historical course of speciation.
2
,Taxonomic = a category used in the classification of living organisms, e.g. phylum, class, order, family,
genus or species.
3
, Module 2 Unicellular vs multicellular
Learning objectives:
• Describe the relationships between protists and animals;
• Describe the body plans and functioning of different types of sponges.
Protist = single-celled eukaryotic organisms
The earliest life forms where unicellular, during the evolution to multicellular organisms two
mechanisms played an important role:
1. The capacity of cells to adhere to one another.
2. The capacity to exchange signals.
Unicellular, flagellated organisms that form colonies, resembling the extant
choanoflagellates, were the common ancestors of all animals.
3 domains of life:
I. Archaea
II. Bacteria
III. Eukarya : all the cells in the organisms contain nucleus
Eukarya contain 4 clades
Eukarya are most related to Archea
1) Excavate; Euglena
o Has chloroplasts ➔ plant feature
o To optimal the light intake, it orientates to the light by the eyespot
o Has long flagellum ➔ animal feature
2) SAR; Paramecium
o Have Cilia: a hairlike structure on their membrane, this provides their ability to swim ➔
animal feature
3) Unikonta; Amoeba
o Have pseudopod: fingerlike structures which can change shape, this way they can trap their
food/prey (the name of the process of the food intake is phagocytosis) ➔ animal feature
Protozoa → informal cluster of groups with complicated and uncertain phyletic relationships
Mitochondria; was an independent aerobic prokaryote organelle that was engulfed by and anaerobic
procaryote
Contractile vacuole = important for the water balance in the cell
Amoebas move by pseudopodia
4
• Name and recognize the main structures of all the discussed model organisms;
• Know the functions of the main structures;
• Describe the evolutionary trend underlying the position of the model organism in the
phylogenetic tree.
Module 0: course introduction and overview
Learning objectives:
I. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of the major animal clades;
II. Understand the evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships among and between different
animal groups;
III. Describe structure-function relationships of the major animal clades at the organ, tissue and
cellular level;
IV. Compare and contrast the adaptations required for living in interaction with a specific
environment;
V. Develop the ability to perform directed dissections and independent study of animal
specimens representative of major phyla or classes.
Evolution = the biological concept that refers to the process of change in all forms of life over
successive generations.
Adaptation = the mechanism by which organisms have adjusted to new environments or to changes
in their current environment. May also refer to a specific trait that made the species a better fit to
the environment.
Phylogeny = a hypothetical relationship between groups of organisms being compared.
Taxonomy = refers to classifying organisms into categories and providing them with a unique,
scientific name.
Oder of ranks:
• Domain → bacteria, archea of eukarya
• Kingdom = primary division of animals
• Phylum
• Class
• Oder
• Rank
• Family
• Genus
• Species
Module 1 evolution and phylogeny
1
,Learning objectives:
I. Identify and describe features of objects, based on which you can classify them
systematically;
II. Build a simple phylogenetic tree based on morphological or molecular traits;
III. Interpret a given phylogenetic tree.
clade
Derived trade
Root = commons ancestor for which the taxons or species derive
Node= common ancestor of the species that come after the branching point
Species ( and taxon) → can’t have representable baby’s
Derive trade = trade that’s shared among groups of organisms
Clade = all evolutionary descendants of a certain common ancestor
Sister groups = species that are most related to each other with an equal distance to the other
organisms in the clade
Outer group = organism/ taxon that shares an ancestor with all of the other ones, but doesn’t share
any of the derived trades
Some terms:
Convergent evolution= feature that are developed multiple times in different branches of the tree
Binomial = a name consisting of two parts, like Tyrannosaurus rex
Analogue = any organ or part similar in function to one in a different animal, but of unlike origin
(andere oorsprong)
Homologous = structures or other parts in different species that resemble each other because of
origin by common decent
Phylogenetic = the line of descent of a species, an approach to classification that attempts to
reconstruct evolutionary genealogies and the historical course of speciation.
2
,Taxonomic = a category used in the classification of living organisms, e.g. phylum, class, order, family,
genus or species.
3
, Module 2 Unicellular vs multicellular
Learning objectives:
• Describe the relationships between protists and animals;
• Describe the body plans and functioning of different types of sponges.
Protist = single-celled eukaryotic organisms
The earliest life forms where unicellular, during the evolution to multicellular organisms two
mechanisms played an important role:
1. The capacity of cells to adhere to one another.
2. The capacity to exchange signals.
Unicellular, flagellated organisms that form colonies, resembling the extant
choanoflagellates, were the common ancestors of all animals.
3 domains of life:
I. Archaea
II. Bacteria
III. Eukarya : all the cells in the organisms contain nucleus
Eukarya contain 4 clades
Eukarya are most related to Archea
1) Excavate; Euglena
o Has chloroplasts ➔ plant feature
o To optimal the light intake, it orientates to the light by the eyespot
o Has long flagellum ➔ animal feature
2) SAR; Paramecium
o Have Cilia: a hairlike structure on their membrane, this provides their ability to swim ➔
animal feature
3) Unikonta; Amoeba
o Have pseudopod: fingerlike structures which can change shape, this way they can trap their
food/prey (the name of the process of the food intake is phagocytosis) ➔ animal feature
Protozoa → informal cluster of groups with complicated and uncertain phyletic relationships
Mitochondria; was an independent aerobic prokaryote organelle that was engulfed by and anaerobic
procaryote
Contractile vacuole = important for the water balance in the cell
Amoebas move by pseudopodia
4
