Lecture 1
SCIENCE IN TIMES OF "ALTERNATIVE FACTS" & POLITICAL CORRECTNESS
Scientism: science is superior to all other attempts at knowledge and its laws provide certainty
Scepticism: science doesn't give certainly, its equal to other form of knowledge (science is a faith) critical
thinking about science and is against methodological rules, pluralistic conception of rationality and
knowledge
SCIENTISM (page 11)
Keywords: facts, science is truth, rationality
Associated with: Modernism: modern thinking (rational and reason-based) thinking for yourself
secular: no faith/religion
- "Truth about nature is only found in science"
- Their slogan: "Scientific method is the only method to obtain facts and truth, science is abut
everything"
Metaphor: mind = perfect mirror of reality
SCEPTICISM (page 12-13)
Keywords: more than 1 knowledge, truth is experience, uncertainty, scientific knowledge = oppressive
power = science is an ideology
Associated with: Postmodernism: secular thinking but individual emotional expression is key
- Truth can come from experience and uncertainty (truth doesnt only come from
scientists)
- Relativist: every truth, every person has their own truth and they all have the
same value (don't believe in anything anymore) (not science as an oppressor
power!)
- "Knowledge and truth are social constructions that need 'deconstruction'" (relativism/nihilism)
- Their slogan: "Anything goes"
Metaphor: mind = crooked mirror (we know nothing and never will)
RADICAL INTERPRETATION OF PHILOSOPHICAL SCEPTICISM
,Metaphor: raging fire in society =relativism (everything is relative, science is an opinion), "alternative
facts" // fake news (aka. Misinformation and disinformation)
- RELATIVISM example: "There's no such thing as truth, everyone has their own truth" (connection
to anything goes)
- Philosophy pov: the issue is that there's 2 points of view on knowledge (scientism and
scepticism!)
(ex. Vaccination, flat earth, climate change)
BASIC EXPLORATION STYLES
1. NAIVE INQUIRY (week 1 reading, page 3): non-formalized, non-systematic and non-controlled
form of collecting and summarizing information into naive theories
Aka.: common sense (done in daily lives)
(ex. Religion, astrology, superstition, conspiracies)
Pre-modern thinking: religious thinking, belief in given truth (truth given by God)
- Methods of knowing:
- Tenancy: what commonly known as true (fans in keeping things as they are) (most
primitive way of knowing!)
- Authority: high regarded person speaks truth
- Reasonable man/ a priori: people who inquire with reason and logical consistency
necessary (marketplace of ideas) (NOT SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY!)
- Associations:
- Biases, convictions, population scepticism, postmodernism, myth
- " have this theory" (theory = hypothesis/ speculation!! AND THIS IS THE WRONG USE OF
THE WORD!)
2. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY: (week 1 reading, page 3) mutually agreed upon rules for establishing truth
(shifts the focus of truth from single individuals to groups)
- This is because observation and reasoning are ERROR PRONE (according to
scientists)
- What you believe internally, should be supported externally!
, - Analytical: logical/ theoretical
- Empirical: research with observation
Aka.: scientific method, modern thinking, analytical-empirical approach, experimental research
(ex. Science journals, empirical cycles, multilevel modelling)
- Associations
- Critical shift in perspective compared to naive inquiry
- Internal beliefs should be supported by external evidence
- Methodological rigour, modelling
Slogan: "Truth is an objective reality 'out there' and our idea do not alter that reality, we develop
theories that are true"
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Use and selection of concepts (variables)
2. Linking concepts (variables to propositions
3. Testing theories with observable evidence
4. Defining of concepts (variables)
5. Publication of definition and process
6. Control of alternative explanation
7. Unbiased selection of evidence
8. Reconciliation of theory and observation
PILLARS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (5 pillars of science)
1. EMPIRICISM
- Answer to scientific questions demand unbiased observation and testing
- Observable phenomena
2. REALITY (REALISM)
- "Reality exists out there" (not as simple as it looks like)
- Science assume that there is an independent reality out there (our assumptions
don't alter reality)
3. OBJECTIVITY (OBJECTIVISM)
, - Scientific theory must hold objectively: independent of believes and attitudes of
research
- Truth exists out there
4. LOGIC
- Logical reasoning and logical methods
5. CRITICAL ATTITUDES AND FALLIBILITY
- We can be wrong (critical attitude)
GOALS AND PILLARS OF SCIENCE
Goal: to find true and content-rich statements, laws or theories relation to a give domain of phenomena
(ex. communication)
- Science aims to find find true, objective and real theories by using observation, logical and
critical attitude (scientists try to defy scepticism and relativism regarding science)
Why rely on science?
- Effective
- Science produces knowledge
- Science-based advice
- Works on solutions
- works/ tried to find answers
Metatheory: theory behind theory (ex. What's the theory behind communication theories?)
- Theory behind what might be happening
- Theory: interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of
phenomena
- Purpose: explain and predict phenomena (specify relation amon variables!
- Concepts: variables (things that vary (mental images of what changes)
- Objective: evidence can be collected by anyone (regardless of research! Reproducible
and unbiased)
- Types of relations: 1) null: non-existent, 2) covariance: concepts vary together but not
cause and effect, 3) casual: concepts are related
SCIENCE IN TIMES OF "ALTERNATIVE FACTS" & POLITICAL CORRECTNESS
Scientism: science is superior to all other attempts at knowledge and its laws provide certainty
Scepticism: science doesn't give certainly, its equal to other form of knowledge (science is a faith) critical
thinking about science and is against methodological rules, pluralistic conception of rationality and
knowledge
SCIENTISM (page 11)
Keywords: facts, science is truth, rationality
Associated with: Modernism: modern thinking (rational and reason-based) thinking for yourself
secular: no faith/religion
- "Truth about nature is only found in science"
- Their slogan: "Scientific method is the only method to obtain facts and truth, science is abut
everything"
Metaphor: mind = perfect mirror of reality
SCEPTICISM (page 12-13)
Keywords: more than 1 knowledge, truth is experience, uncertainty, scientific knowledge = oppressive
power = science is an ideology
Associated with: Postmodernism: secular thinking but individual emotional expression is key
- Truth can come from experience and uncertainty (truth doesnt only come from
scientists)
- Relativist: every truth, every person has their own truth and they all have the
same value (don't believe in anything anymore) (not science as an oppressor
power!)
- "Knowledge and truth are social constructions that need 'deconstruction'" (relativism/nihilism)
- Their slogan: "Anything goes"
Metaphor: mind = crooked mirror (we know nothing and never will)
RADICAL INTERPRETATION OF PHILOSOPHICAL SCEPTICISM
,Metaphor: raging fire in society =relativism (everything is relative, science is an opinion), "alternative
facts" // fake news (aka. Misinformation and disinformation)
- RELATIVISM example: "There's no such thing as truth, everyone has their own truth" (connection
to anything goes)
- Philosophy pov: the issue is that there's 2 points of view on knowledge (scientism and
scepticism!)
(ex. Vaccination, flat earth, climate change)
BASIC EXPLORATION STYLES
1. NAIVE INQUIRY (week 1 reading, page 3): non-formalized, non-systematic and non-controlled
form of collecting and summarizing information into naive theories
Aka.: common sense (done in daily lives)
(ex. Religion, astrology, superstition, conspiracies)
Pre-modern thinking: religious thinking, belief in given truth (truth given by God)
- Methods of knowing:
- Tenancy: what commonly known as true (fans in keeping things as they are) (most
primitive way of knowing!)
- Authority: high regarded person speaks truth
- Reasonable man/ a priori: people who inquire with reason and logical consistency
necessary (marketplace of ideas) (NOT SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY!)
- Associations:
- Biases, convictions, population scepticism, postmodernism, myth
- " have this theory" (theory = hypothesis/ speculation!! AND THIS IS THE WRONG USE OF
THE WORD!)
2. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY: (week 1 reading, page 3) mutually agreed upon rules for establishing truth
(shifts the focus of truth from single individuals to groups)
- This is because observation and reasoning are ERROR PRONE (according to
scientists)
- What you believe internally, should be supported externally!
, - Analytical: logical/ theoretical
- Empirical: research with observation
Aka.: scientific method, modern thinking, analytical-empirical approach, experimental research
(ex. Science journals, empirical cycles, multilevel modelling)
- Associations
- Critical shift in perspective compared to naive inquiry
- Internal beliefs should be supported by external evidence
- Methodological rigour, modelling
Slogan: "Truth is an objective reality 'out there' and our idea do not alter that reality, we develop
theories that are true"
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Use and selection of concepts (variables)
2. Linking concepts (variables to propositions
3. Testing theories with observable evidence
4. Defining of concepts (variables)
5. Publication of definition and process
6. Control of alternative explanation
7. Unbiased selection of evidence
8. Reconciliation of theory and observation
PILLARS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (5 pillars of science)
1. EMPIRICISM
- Answer to scientific questions demand unbiased observation and testing
- Observable phenomena
2. REALITY (REALISM)
- "Reality exists out there" (not as simple as it looks like)
- Science assume that there is an independent reality out there (our assumptions
don't alter reality)
3. OBJECTIVITY (OBJECTIVISM)
, - Scientific theory must hold objectively: independent of believes and attitudes of
research
- Truth exists out there
4. LOGIC
- Logical reasoning and logical methods
5. CRITICAL ATTITUDES AND FALLIBILITY
- We can be wrong (critical attitude)
GOALS AND PILLARS OF SCIENCE
Goal: to find true and content-rich statements, laws or theories relation to a give domain of phenomena
(ex. communication)
- Science aims to find find true, objective and real theories by using observation, logical and
critical attitude (scientists try to defy scepticism and relativism regarding science)
Why rely on science?
- Effective
- Science produces knowledge
- Science-based advice
- Works on solutions
- works/ tried to find answers
Metatheory: theory behind theory (ex. What's the theory behind communication theories?)
- Theory behind what might be happening
- Theory: interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of
phenomena
- Purpose: explain and predict phenomena (specify relation amon variables!
- Concepts: variables (things that vary (mental images of what changes)
- Objective: evidence can be collected by anyone (regardless of research! Reproducible
and unbiased)
- Types of relations: 1) null: non-existent, 2) covariance: concepts vary together but not
cause and effect, 3) casual: concepts are related
