Telegram\ medicine48 Segmentation By \ Belal Shams A
, Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 19
(a) MRI of the head; sagittal section, artificially colored (b) Volume rendering of an MRI of the head
FIGURE 1.15 Magnetic resonance image (MRI). The flat surfaces in (b) show the
original MRI data.
ful in trauma situations. MRI is also more sensitive to patient check your understanding
movement during the scan, and it does not visualize bone or
other tissues with low water content. 10. What imaging technique is best suited for each of
In conclusion, the images formed by computerized imag- the clinical situations described? (a) Examining
ing techniques can be quite stunning. Keep in mind, however, gallbladder for possible gallstones in response to a
that the images are abstractions assembled within a computer. patient’s complaints of sharp pain in the right
They are artificially enhanced for sharpness and artificially hypochondriac region of the abdomen; (b) ruling out
colored to increase contrast or to highlight areas of interest. a broken bone in a patient complaining of wrist and
Although computer-based images are not inaccurate, they are forearm pain; (c) examining of the knee of a patient
several steps removed from direct visual observation. complaining of persistent pain following an injury on
the athletic field; (d) assessing possible damage to
abdominal viscera resulting from a car accident.
For answers, see Appendix B.
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
An Overview of Anatomy (pp. 2–6) The Hierarchy of Structural Organization (pp. 3–6)
1. Anatomy is the study of body structure. In this book, structures are 4. The levels of structural organization of the body, from simplest to
considered in terms of their function. most complex, are chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system,
and the human organism itself.
Branches of Anatomy (p. 2)
2. Branches of anatomy include gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy 5. The organ systems in the body are the integumentary (skin), skele-
(histology), and developmental anatomy. tal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, im-
mune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
Anatomical Terminology (p. 3)
3. Because most structures in the body have formal Greek and Latin Scale: Length, Volume, and Weight (p. 6)
names, learning the meaning of word roots will help you under- 6. Important units of length measurement are meters (m) for the or-
stand anatomy. ganism, centimeters (cm) for the organs, and micrometers (μm) for
cells. For other units of size, see Appendix A.
Telegram\ medicine48 Segmentation By \ Belal Shams Al
, 20 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation
Gross Anatomy: An Introduction (pp. 6–13) Microscopic Anatomy: An Introduction (pp. 14–15)
Regional and Directional Terms (p. 6) Light and Electron Microscopy (pp. 14–15)
7. In the adult anatomical position, the body stands erect, facing forward 15. To illuminate cells and tissues, the light microscope (LM) uses
with legs together. The arms are at the sides, with the palms forward. light beams and the transmission electron microscope (TEM or
EM) uses electron beams. EM produces sharper images than LM at
8. Regional terms are used to designate specific areas of the body
higher magnification.
(see Figure 1.3).
16. The preparation of tissues for microscopy involves preservation
9. Directional terms allow anatomists to describe the location of
(fixation), sectioning, and staining. Stains for LM are colored dyes,
body structures with precision. Important terms include superior/
whereas stains for TEM are heavy-metal salts.
inferior; anterior/posterior (or ventral/dorsal); medial/lateral; prox-
imal/distal; and superficial/deep (see Table 1.1). Scanning Electron Microscopy (p. 15)
17. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides sharp, three-
Body Planes and Sections (pp. 6–7)
dimensional images at high magnification.
10. The body or its organs may be cut along planes to produce differ-
ent types of sections. Frequently used are sagittal, frontal, and Clinical Anatomy: An Introduction to Medical
transverse planes. Imaging Techniques (pp. 15–19)
The Human Body Plan (pp. 10–11) X-Ray Imaging (pp. 15–16)
11. The basic structures we share with all other vertebrate animals are 18. In conventional radiographs, X rays are used to produce negative
the tube-within-a-tube body plan, bilateral symmetry, a dorsal hol- images of internal body structures. Denser structures in the body
low nerve cord, notochord and vertebrae, segmentation, and pha- appear lighter (whiter) on the X-ray film.
ryngeal pouches. Advanced X-Ray Techniques (p. 16)
Body Cavities and Membranes (pp. 11–12) 19. Computed tomography (CT) produces improved X-ray images that
12. The body contains two major closed cavities: the dorsal cavity, are taken in cross section to avoid overlapping images of adjacent
subdivided into the cranial and vertebral cavities; and the ventral organs and computer enhanced for clarity. Angiography produces
body cavity, subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic sharp X-ray images of blood vessels injected with a contrast
cavities. medium.
13. Within the ventral cavity are the visceral organs (such as the heart, Positron Emission Tomography (PET) (pp. 16–18)
lungs, intestines, and kidneys) and three serous cavities: pleural, 20. PET tracks radioisotopes in the body, locating areas of high energy
pericardial, and peritoneal cavities. These slitlike cavities are lined consumption and high blood flow.
by thin membranes, the parietal and visceral serosae (see Figure
1.7). The serosae produce a thin layer of lubricating fluid that de-
Sonography (p. 18)
21. Ultrasonography provides sonar images of developing fetuses and
creases friction between moving organs.
internal body structures.
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants (pp. 12–13)
14. To map the visceral organs in the abdominopelvic cavity, clinicians
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (pp. 18–19)
22. MRI subjects the body to strong magnetic fields and radio waves,
divide the abdomen into nine regions or four quadrants.
producing high-contrast images of soft body structures.
R E V I E W QU E ST I O N S
Multiple Choice/Matching Questions 3. Using the terms listed below, fill in the blank with the proper term.
For answers, see Appendix B. anterior superior medial proximal superficial
posterior inferior lateral distal deep
1. The correct sequence of levels forming the body’s structural
hierarchy is (a) organ, organ system, cellular, chemical, tissue; (a) The heart is located to the diaphragm.
(b) chemical, tissue, cellular, organismal, organ, organ system; (b) The muscles are to the skin.
(c) chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal;
(d) organismal, organ system, organ, chemical, cellular, tissue. (c) The shoulder is to the elbow.
2. Using what you learned about scale in this chapter, choose one of (d) In anatomical position, the thumb is to the index finger.
the values in Column B as an appropriate height or diameter for (e) The vertebral region is to the scapular region.
each object listed in Column A.
(f) The gluteal region is located on the surface of the body.
Column A Column B
(g) The hip bone is to the navel.
(1) white blood cell (a) 2 m
(h) The nose is to the chin.
(2) stomach (b) 25 cm
(i) The toes are to the heel.
(3) professional basketball player (c) 1 micrometer
(j) The scalp is to the skull.
(d) 10 micrometers
Telegram\ medicine48 Segmentation By \ Belal Shams A
, Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 21
4. Match each anatomical term for body regions listed in column B 11. Which microscopic technique provides sharp pictures of three-
with the common name listed in column A. dimensional structures at high magnification? (a) light microscopy,
(b) X-ray microscopy, (c) scanning electron microscopy, (d) trans-
Column A Column B
mission electron microscopy.
(1) armpit (a) inguinal
12. Histology is the same as (a) pathological anatomy, (b) ultrastruc-
(2) buttocks (b) frontal ture, (c) functional morphology, (d) surface anatomy, (e) micro-
(3) back (c) dorsal scopic anatomy.
(4) shoulder blade (d) axilla Short Answer Essay Questions
(5) front of elbow (e) lumbar
13. Describe the anatomical position, and then assume this position.
(6) hand (f) gluteal
14. Identify the organ system that each group of organs listed here is
(7) groin (g) antecubital part of:
(8) forehead (h) plantar (a) thymus, thyroid, ovary, pancreas
(b) nasal cavity, larynx, bronchi, lungs
(9) lower back (i) manus
(c) kidney, ureter, urethra
(10) sole of foot (j) scapular
15. (a) Define bilateral symmetry. (b) Although many body structures
5. Which of these organs would not be cut by a section through the are bilaterally symmetrical, much of the abdomen is not. Find a
midsagittal plane of the body? (Hint: See Figure 1.8) (a) urinary picture that demonstrates this lack of symmetry, and name some
bladder, (b) gallbladder, (c) small intestine, (d) heart. abdominal organs that are not symmetrical.
6. State whether each structure listed below is part of the inner tube 16. The following advanced imaging techniques are discussed in the
(I) or outer tube (O). text: CT, angiography, PET, sonography, and MRI. (a) Which of
these techniques uses X rays? (b) Which uses radio waves and
(1) intestines (5) abdominal muscles
magnetic fields? (c) Which uses radioactive isotopes? (d) Which
(2) lungs (6) esophagus displays body regions in sections? You may have more than one
(3) ribs (7) spinal cord answer to each question.
(4) backbone (vertebra) 17. Give the formal regional term for each of these body areas: (a)
arm, (b) chest, (c) thigh, (d) navel, (e) limbs.
7. Indicate whether each of the following conditions or statements
applies to the dorsal body cavity (D) or the ventral body cavity (V). 18. Look ahead in this book to Figure 4.3 (pp. 68–71). Do you think
that the micrographs in the figure are viewed by light microscopy,
(1) surrounded by the skull and the vertebral column transmission electron microscopy, or scanning electron mi-
(2) includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities croscopy? Please explain your answer as fully as possible.
(3) contains the brain and spinal cord 19. Construct sentences that use the following directional terms: supe-
rior/inferior; dorsal/ventral; medial/lateral; and superficial/deep.
(4) located more anteriorly Table 1.1 gives examples such as “The forehead is superior to the
(5) contains the heart, lungs, and many digestive organs nose,” but please use different examples from those in the table.
For ideas, look at whole-body diagrams that show many structures,
8. Radiographs. List the following structures, from darkest (black) to such as Figures 1.3 and 1.8.
lightest (white), as they would appear on an X-ray film. Number
the darkest one 1, the next darkest 2, and so on. 20. The main cavities of the body include the abdominal and pelvic
cavities. List three organs in each of these cavities.
(a) soft tissue
21. Where would you be injured if you pulled a muscle in your axil-
(b) femur (bone of the thigh) lary region, cracked a bone in your occipital region, or received a
(c) air in lungs cut on a digit?
(d) gold (metal) filling in a tooth 22. (a) The human body is designed as a tube within a tube. List three
organs that are part of the inner tube and three structures that are
9. The ventral surface of the body is the same as its surface.
components of the outer tube. (b) Give an example of segmenta-
(a) medial, (b) superior, (c) superficial, (d) anterior, (e) distal.
tion in the human body.
10. Match each serous membrane in column B with its description in
column A.
Column A Column B
(1) covers the surface of the heart (a) parietal pericardium
(2) forms the outer lining of the (b) parietal pleura
pericardium
(3) lines the wall of the thoracic cavity (c) visceral pericardium
(4) covers the outer surface of the small (d) visceral peritoneum
intestine
Telegram\ medicine48 Segmentation By \ Belal Shams Al
, Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 19
(a) MRI of the head; sagittal section, artificially colored (b) Volume rendering of an MRI of the head
FIGURE 1.15 Magnetic resonance image (MRI). The flat surfaces in (b) show the
original MRI data.
ful in trauma situations. MRI is also more sensitive to patient check your understanding
movement during the scan, and it does not visualize bone or
other tissues with low water content. 10. What imaging technique is best suited for each of
In conclusion, the images formed by computerized imag- the clinical situations described? (a) Examining
ing techniques can be quite stunning. Keep in mind, however, gallbladder for possible gallstones in response to a
that the images are abstractions assembled within a computer. patient’s complaints of sharp pain in the right
They are artificially enhanced for sharpness and artificially hypochondriac region of the abdomen; (b) ruling out
colored to increase contrast or to highlight areas of interest. a broken bone in a patient complaining of wrist and
Although computer-based images are not inaccurate, they are forearm pain; (c) examining of the knee of a patient
several steps removed from direct visual observation. complaining of persistent pain following an injury on
the athletic field; (d) assessing possible damage to
abdominal viscera resulting from a car accident.
For answers, see Appendix B.
C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
An Overview of Anatomy (pp. 2–6) The Hierarchy of Structural Organization (pp. 3–6)
1. Anatomy is the study of body structure. In this book, structures are 4. The levels of structural organization of the body, from simplest to
considered in terms of their function. most complex, are chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system,
and the human organism itself.
Branches of Anatomy (p. 2)
2. Branches of anatomy include gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy 5. The organ systems in the body are the integumentary (skin), skele-
(histology), and developmental anatomy. tal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, im-
mune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
Anatomical Terminology (p. 3)
3. Because most structures in the body have formal Greek and Latin Scale: Length, Volume, and Weight (p. 6)
names, learning the meaning of word roots will help you under- 6. Important units of length measurement are meters (m) for the or-
stand anatomy. ganism, centimeters (cm) for the organs, and micrometers (μm) for
cells. For other units of size, see Appendix A.
Telegram\ medicine48 Segmentation By \ Belal Shams Al
, 20 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation
Gross Anatomy: An Introduction (pp. 6–13) Microscopic Anatomy: An Introduction (pp. 14–15)
Regional and Directional Terms (p. 6) Light and Electron Microscopy (pp. 14–15)
7. In the adult anatomical position, the body stands erect, facing forward 15. To illuminate cells and tissues, the light microscope (LM) uses
with legs together. The arms are at the sides, with the palms forward. light beams and the transmission electron microscope (TEM or
EM) uses electron beams. EM produces sharper images than LM at
8. Regional terms are used to designate specific areas of the body
higher magnification.
(see Figure 1.3).
16. The preparation of tissues for microscopy involves preservation
9. Directional terms allow anatomists to describe the location of
(fixation), sectioning, and staining. Stains for LM are colored dyes,
body structures with precision. Important terms include superior/
whereas stains for TEM are heavy-metal salts.
inferior; anterior/posterior (or ventral/dorsal); medial/lateral; prox-
imal/distal; and superficial/deep (see Table 1.1). Scanning Electron Microscopy (p. 15)
17. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides sharp, three-
Body Planes and Sections (pp. 6–7)
dimensional images at high magnification.
10. The body or its organs may be cut along planes to produce differ-
ent types of sections. Frequently used are sagittal, frontal, and Clinical Anatomy: An Introduction to Medical
transverse planes. Imaging Techniques (pp. 15–19)
The Human Body Plan (pp. 10–11) X-Ray Imaging (pp. 15–16)
11. The basic structures we share with all other vertebrate animals are 18. In conventional radiographs, X rays are used to produce negative
the tube-within-a-tube body plan, bilateral symmetry, a dorsal hol- images of internal body structures. Denser structures in the body
low nerve cord, notochord and vertebrae, segmentation, and pha- appear lighter (whiter) on the X-ray film.
ryngeal pouches. Advanced X-Ray Techniques (p. 16)
Body Cavities and Membranes (pp. 11–12) 19. Computed tomography (CT) produces improved X-ray images that
12. The body contains two major closed cavities: the dorsal cavity, are taken in cross section to avoid overlapping images of adjacent
subdivided into the cranial and vertebral cavities; and the ventral organs and computer enhanced for clarity. Angiography produces
body cavity, subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic sharp X-ray images of blood vessels injected with a contrast
cavities. medium.
13. Within the ventral cavity are the visceral organs (such as the heart, Positron Emission Tomography (PET) (pp. 16–18)
lungs, intestines, and kidneys) and three serous cavities: pleural, 20. PET tracks radioisotopes in the body, locating areas of high energy
pericardial, and peritoneal cavities. These slitlike cavities are lined consumption and high blood flow.
by thin membranes, the parietal and visceral serosae (see Figure
1.7). The serosae produce a thin layer of lubricating fluid that de-
Sonography (p. 18)
21. Ultrasonography provides sonar images of developing fetuses and
creases friction between moving organs.
internal body structures.
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants (pp. 12–13)
14. To map the visceral organs in the abdominopelvic cavity, clinicians
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (pp. 18–19)
22. MRI subjects the body to strong magnetic fields and radio waves,
divide the abdomen into nine regions or four quadrants.
producing high-contrast images of soft body structures.
R E V I E W QU E ST I O N S
Multiple Choice/Matching Questions 3. Using the terms listed below, fill in the blank with the proper term.
For answers, see Appendix B. anterior superior medial proximal superficial
posterior inferior lateral distal deep
1. The correct sequence of levels forming the body’s structural
hierarchy is (a) organ, organ system, cellular, chemical, tissue; (a) The heart is located to the diaphragm.
(b) chemical, tissue, cellular, organismal, organ, organ system; (b) The muscles are to the skin.
(c) chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal;
(d) organismal, organ system, organ, chemical, cellular, tissue. (c) The shoulder is to the elbow.
2. Using what you learned about scale in this chapter, choose one of (d) In anatomical position, the thumb is to the index finger.
the values in Column B as an appropriate height or diameter for (e) The vertebral region is to the scapular region.
each object listed in Column A.
(f) The gluteal region is located on the surface of the body.
Column A Column B
(g) The hip bone is to the navel.
(1) white blood cell (a) 2 m
(h) The nose is to the chin.
(2) stomach (b) 25 cm
(i) The toes are to the heel.
(3) professional basketball player (c) 1 micrometer
(j) The scalp is to the skull.
(d) 10 micrometers
Telegram\ medicine48 Segmentation By \ Belal Shams A
, Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 21
4. Match each anatomical term for body regions listed in column B 11. Which microscopic technique provides sharp pictures of three-
with the common name listed in column A. dimensional structures at high magnification? (a) light microscopy,
(b) X-ray microscopy, (c) scanning electron microscopy, (d) trans-
Column A Column B
mission electron microscopy.
(1) armpit (a) inguinal
12. Histology is the same as (a) pathological anatomy, (b) ultrastruc-
(2) buttocks (b) frontal ture, (c) functional morphology, (d) surface anatomy, (e) micro-
(3) back (c) dorsal scopic anatomy.
(4) shoulder blade (d) axilla Short Answer Essay Questions
(5) front of elbow (e) lumbar
13. Describe the anatomical position, and then assume this position.
(6) hand (f) gluteal
14. Identify the organ system that each group of organs listed here is
(7) groin (g) antecubital part of:
(8) forehead (h) plantar (a) thymus, thyroid, ovary, pancreas
(b) nasal cavity, larynx, bronchi, lungs
(9) lower back (i) manus
(c) kidney, ureter, urethra
(10) sole of foot (j) scapular
15. (a) Define bilateral symmetry. (b) Although many body structures
5. Which of these organs would not be cut by a section through the are bilaterally symmetrical, much of the abdomen is not. Find a
midsagittal plane of the body? (Hint: See Figure 1.8) (a) urinary picture that demonstrates this lack of symmetry, and name some
bladder, (b) gallbladder, (c) small intestine, (d) heart. abdominal organs that are not symmetrical.
6. State whether each structure listed below is part of the inner tube 16. The following advanced imaging techniques are discussed in the
(I) or outer tube (O). text: CT, angiography, PET, sonography, and MRI. (a) Which of
these techniques uses X rays? (b) Which uses radio waves and
(1) intestines (5) abdominal muscles
magnetic fields? (c) Which uses radioactive isotopes? (d) Which
(2) lungs (6) esophagus displays body regions in sections? You may have more than one
(3) ribs (7) spinal cord answer to each question.
(4) backbone (vertebra) 17. Give the formal regional term for each of these body areas: (a)
arm, (b) chest, (c) thigh, (d) navel, (e) limbs.
7. Indicate whether each of the following conditions or statements
applies to the dorsal body cavity (D) or the ventral body cavity (V). 18. Look ahead in this book to Figure 4.3 (pp. 68–71). Do you think
that the micrographs in the figure are viewed by light microscopy,
(1) surrounded by the skull and the vertebral column transmission electron microscopy, or scanning electron mi-
(2) includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities croscopy? Please explain your answer as fully as possible.
(3) contains the brain and spinal cord 19. Construct sentences that use the following directional terms: supe-
rior/inferior; dorsal/ventral; medial/lateral; and superficial/deep.
(4) located more anteriorly Table 1.1 gives examples such as “The forehead is superior to the
(5) contains the heart, lungs, and many digestive organs nose,” but please use different examples from those in the table.
For ideas, look at whole-body diagrams that show many structures,
8. Radiographs. List the following structures, from darkest (black) to such as Figures 1.3 and 1.8.
lightest (white), as they would appear on an X-ray film. Number
the darkest one 1, the next darkest 2, and so on. 20. The main cavities of the body include the abdominal and pelvic
cavities. List three organs in each of these cavities.
(a) soft tissue
21. Where would you be injured if you pulled a muscle in your axil-
(b) femur (bone of the thigh) lary region, cracked a bone in your occipital region, or received a
(c) air in lungs cut on a digit?
(d) gold (metal) filling in a tooth 22. (a) The human body is designed as a tube within a tube. List three
organs that are part of the inner tube and three structures that are
9. The ventral surface of the body is the same as its surface.
components of the outer tube. (b) Give an example of segmenta-
(a) medial, (b) superior, (c) superficial, (d) anterior, (e) distal.
tion in the human body.
10. Match each serous membrane in column B with its description in
column A.
Column A Column B
(1) covers the surface of the heart (a) parietal pericardium
(2) forms the outer lining of the (b) parietal pleura
pericardium
(3) lines the wall of the thoracic cavity (c) visceral pericardium
(4) covers the outer surface of the small (d) visceral peritoneum
intestine
Telegram\ medicine48 Segmentation By \ Belal Shams Al
