Lectured notes in Nyaya Philosophy
AB- Philosophy
Asian Philosophy
Sacred Heart Seminary
NYAYA: INDIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
Historical Background
The Nyaya- Sutras were composed by Akshpada Gautama about the 2nd century BCE.
The Nyaya School is somehow related with Vaisheshika school of Hindu Philosophy.
- The two systems are both astika systems of Indian philosophy which means they both accept
the authority of the Vedas.
The school of Nyaya is divided into two periods:
1.Old Nyaya: From Gautama through his important early commentator Vatsyayana (c. 450 CE)
until Udayanacharva (10th century)—became qualified as the Old Nyaya (Prachina-Nyaya).
2. New Nyaya: The new school of Nyaya (Navya- Nyaya, or “New Nyaya”) arose in Bengal in
the 11th century. The best-known philosopher of the Navya-Nyaya, and the founder of the
modern school of Indian logic, was Gangesha (13th century).
Nyaya in Brief
Nyaya means “Rule” or “Method.” One of the six systems (Darshanas) of Indian
philosophy. Important for its analysis of logic and epistemology.
It is a means to obtain Right knowledge about the Self and to discover the purpose of life.
Nyaya’s most important contribution to Hindu thought is its elucidation of pramanas (tools
for right knowledge).
Like other systems, Nyaya is both philosophical and religious. Its ultimate concern is to
bring an end to human suffering which results from ignorance of reality. Thus, Liberation is
brought about through right knowledge.
The Methodology
The logical method of ascertaining the Truth is through the application of the 16 categories of
Logic, called Padarthas or topics, these are:
1.) Means of Right Knowledge (pramana)
2.) objects of right knowledge (prameya)
3. Doubt (Saṃśaya)
4. Motive (prayojana)
5. Illustrations (dṛṣṭānta)
6. Demonstrated Truth (siddhānta)
7. Factors of Reasoning — syllogism (avayava)
8. Reasoning and confutation (tarka)
9. Discernment (nirṇaya)
10. Discussion (vāda)
11. Disputation (jalpa)
12. Cavil or objection (vitaṇḍā)
, 13. Fallacious Reasoning (hetvābhāsa)
14. Casuistry (chala)
15. Futile Rejoinder (jāti)
16. Clinchers (nigraha-sthāna)
*The first two are the most important. However, for the sake of brevity, not all categories were
tackled during the report.
*The first nine deal more strictly with logic , while the last seven have the function of
preventing and mitigating error.
Epistemology
Nyaya treated epistemology as theory of knowledge, and its scholars developed it as
Pramana-sastras.
The focus of Pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how
one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be
acquired.
What is Valid Knowledge?
-Valid (Right) knowledge is that which reveals a thing as it actually is and is applicable to daily
life.
-Thus, knowledge must have: 1.) Coherence- statement must be logical and consistent. 2.)
Correspondence- the knowledge must correspond to the actual nature of the object as it is.
3.) Consequence/ Utility- it has practical application and utility.
- False knowledge does not correspond to reality and any activity directed thereby results in
failure and disappointment.
The Nyaya scholars accepted four valid means of obtaining knowledge: 1.) Perception;
2.) Inference; 3.)Comparison; 4.) Testimony of Reliable Sources.
1. ) Perception- Perception is defined as the knowledge that arises from the contact of the
senses with the object, which is nonjudgmental, or unerring or judgmental. It can be of two
types:
a. Ordinary Perception- defined by Akṣapāda Gautama in his Nyaya Sutra as a 'non-
erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of sense-organs with the objects'.
b. Extraordinary Percetion- this perception involves: 1.) Jnanalakshana (Intuition). 2.
Samanyalakshana- A form of induction from perceived specifics from a Universal. 3.) Yogaja-
when certain human beings, from the power of yoga, can perceive past, present, and future
and may have supernatural abilities.
Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:
a. Direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, (whatever is being studied).
b. Non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay where one's sensory organ relies on
accepting or rejecting someone else's perceptio.
c. Does not Wander- correct perception does not change, nor it is the result of deception
because one’s sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective or suspect.
d. Definite- correct perception excludes judgments of doubts, either because of one’s failure
to observe all details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what
one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe.
Two stages of perception:
a. Determinate, when one is able to clearly know an object.
b. Indeterminate, when one just perceives an object without being able to know its features.
AB- Philosophy
Asian Philosophy
Sacred Heart Seminary
NYAYA: INDIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
Historical Background
The Nyaya- Sutras were composed by Akshpada Gautama about the 2nd century BCE.
The Nyaya School is somehow related with Vaisheshika school of Hindu Philosophy.
- The two systems are both astika systems of Indian philosophy which means they both accept
the authority of the Vedas.
The school of Nyaya is divided into two periods:
1.Old Nyaya: From Gautama through his important early commentator Vatsyayana (c. 450 CE)
until Udayanacharva (10th century)—became qualified as the Old Nyaya (Prachina-Nyaya).
2. New Nyaya: The new school of Nyaya (Navya- Nyaya, or “New Nyaya”) arose in Bengal in
the 11th century. The best-known philosopher of the Navya-Nyaya, and the founder of the
modern school of Indian logic, was Gangesha (13th century).
Nyaya in Brief
Nyaya means “Rule” or “Method.” One of the six systems (Darshanas) of Indian
philosophy. Important for its analysis of logic and epistemology.
It is a means to obtain Right knowledge about the Self and to discover the purpose of life.
Nyaya’s most important contribution to Hindu thought is its elucidation of pramanas (tools
for right knowledge).
Like other systems, Nyaya is both philosophical and religious. Its ultimate concern is to
bring an end to human suffering which results from ignorance of reality. Thus, Liberation is
brought about through right knowledge.
The Methodology
The logical method of ascertaining the Truth is through the application of the 16 categories of
Logic, called Padarthas or topics, these are:
1.) Means of Right Knowledge (pramana)
2.) objects of right knowledge (prameya)
3. Doubt (Saṃśaya)
4. Motive (prayojana)
5. Illustrations (dṛṣṭānta)
6. Demonstrated Truth (siddhānta)
7. Factors of Reasoning — syllogism (avayava)
8. Reasoning and confutation (tarka)
9. Discernment (nirṇaya)
10. Discussion (vāda)
11. Disputation (jalpa)
12. Cavil or objection (vitaṇḍā)
, 13. Fallacious Reasoning (hetvābhāsa)
14. Casuistry (chala)
15. Futile Rejoinder (jāti)
16. Clinchers (nigraha-sthāna)
*The first two are the most important. However, for the sake of brevity, not all categories were
tackled during the report.
*The first nine deal more strictly with logic , while the last seven have the function of
preventing and mitigating error.
Epistemology
Nyaya treated epistemology as theory of knowledge, and its scholars developed it as
Pramana-sastras.
The focus of Pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how
one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be
acquired.
What is Valid Knowledge?
-Valid (Right) knowledge is that which reveals a thing as it actually is and is applicable to daily
life.
-Thus, knowledge must have: 1.) Coherence- statement must be logical and consistent. 2.)
Correspondence- the knowledge must correspond to the actual nature of the object as it is.
3.) Consequence/ Utility- it has practical application and utility.
- False knowledge does not correspond to reality and any activity directed thereby results in
failure and disappointment.
The Nyaya scholars accepted four valid means of obtaining knowledge: 1.) Perception;
2.) Inference; 3.)Comparison; 4.) Testimony of Reliable Sources.
1. ) Perception- Perception is defined as the knowledge that arises from the contact of the
senses with the object, which is nonjudgmental, or unerring or judgmental. It can be of two
types:
a. Ordinary Perception- defined by Akṣapāda Gautama in his Nyaya Sutra as a 'non-
erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of sense-organs with the objects'.
b. Extraordinary Percetion- this perception involves: 1.) Jnanalakshana (Intuition). 2.
Samanyalakshana- A form of induction from perceived specifics from a Universal. 3.) Yogaja-
when certain human beings, from the power of yoga, can perceive past, present, and future
and may have supernatural abilities.
Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:
a. Direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, (whatever is being studied).
b. Non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay where one's sensory organ relies on
accepting or rejecting someone else's perceptio.
c. Does not Wander- correct perception does not change, nor it is the result of deception
because one’s sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective or suspect.
d. Definite- correct perception excludes judgments of doubts, either because of one’s failure
to observe all details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what
one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe.
Two stages of perception:
a. Determinate, when one is able to clearly know an object.
b. Indeterminate, when one just perceives an object without being able to know its features.
