Human Anatomy and Physiology
Introduction
• Human Anatomy: Deals with the structure of the human body and the relationship among the structures
• Physiology: Deals with body functions
Scope
Helps us to learn about the structure and functions of human body and the inter relationship
Parameters of normal body health and factors affecting normal body processes can be known
Forms the basis for proper diagnosis of a disease and its effective treatment
Anatomical and Physiological concepts help in efficient surgeries and understanding the pathology of diseases
Basis for advanced scientific studies and serves as a gateway to get into health related careers
Helps in successful maintenance of community and individual health
Subspecialties of Anatomy
Embryology • First 8 weeks of development
Developmental Biology • From fertilization of an egg to death
Cell Biology • Cellular structure and functions
Histology • Microscopic structure of tissues
Surface anatomy • Surface markings of the body
Gross anatomy • Structures – Without the use of microscope
Systemic anatomy • Structures – Specific systems
Regional anatomy • Specific regions of the body
Radiographic anatomy • Structures – Visualized with X – rays
Pathological anatomy • Structural changes with disease
Neurophysiology • Functional properties of nerve cells
Endocrinology • Hormones and their control
Cardiovascular Physiology • Functions of heart and blood vessels
Immunology • Defense against disease causing organisms
Respiratory Physiology • Functions of air passageways and lungs
Renal Physiology • Functions of kidneys
Exercise Physiology • Muscular activities – Changes
Pathophysiology • Functional changes - Disease and aging
, Levels of Organization
Living organisms are made up of four levels of organization: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Order the levels of
organization for living organisms
Key Points
Cells are the most basic unit of life at the smallest level of organization.
Cells can be prokaryotic (without nucleus) or eukaroyotic (with nucleus).
The four categories of tissues are connective, muscles, epithelial, and nervous tissues.
Organs are made of different types of tissues and perform complex functions. They can be hollow or solid.
Organ systems are groups of organs that perform similar functions or perform functions together.
Many physiological functions are carried out by multiple organ systems working in tandem.
Key Terms
Cell: The smallest unit of life capable of independent reproduction. Generally contains nucleic acid, cytoplasm, a cell
membrane, and many other proteins and structures.
Organ: A structure made of different tissues that work together to perform physiological functions.
Organ system: A group of organs and tissues that work together to perform specific functions.
Tissues: A group of similar cells with the same origin that work together to perform the same function.
EXAMPLES
Using the circulatory system as an example, a cell in this system is a red blood cell, the heart’s cardiac muscle is a tissue,
an organ is the heart itself, and the organ system is the circulatory system.
An organism is made up of four levels of organization: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. These levels reduce
complex anatomical structures into groups; this organization makes the components easier to understand.
Level 1: Cells
The first and most basic level of organization is the cellular level. A cell is the basic unit of life and the smallest unit
capable of reproduction. While cells vary greatly in their structure and function based on the type of organism, all cells
have a few things in common. Cells are made up of organic molecules, contain nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA), are
filled with fluid called cytoplasm, and have a membrane made out of lipids. Cells also contain many structures within the
cytoplasm called organelles, which perform various cellular functions.
Cells may be prokaryotic (without a nucleus) in bacteria and archaea (single-celled organisms), or eukaryotic (with
nucleus-enclosing DNA) in plants, animals, protists, and fungi. In humans, most cells combine to form tissues, but some
cells are found independent of solid tissues and have their own functions. A red blood cell found circulating in the
bloodstream carrying oxygen throughout the human body is an example of an independent cell.
Level 2: Tissues
Tissues are a group of similar cells of the same origin that carry out a specific function together. Humans have four
different types of basic tissues. Connective tissues such as bone tissue are made up of fibrous cells and give shape and
structure to organs. Muscle tissue is made up of cells that can contract together and allow animals to move. Epithelial
tissues make up the outer layers of organs, such as the skin or the outer layer of the stomach. Nervous tissue is made of
, specialized cells that transmit information through electrochemical impulses, such as the tissue of nerves, the spinal
cord, and the brain.
Level 3: Organs
An organ is a structure made up of different tissues that perform specific bodily functions. Most organs contain tissues
such as parenchyma (used to perform the organ functions), stroma (connective tissue specific to organs) and epithelial.
Organs may be solid or hollow, and vary considerably in size and complexity. The heart, lungs, and brain are all examples
of organs.
Level 4: Organ Systems
An organ system is a collection of organs that that work together to perform a similar function. There are eleven
different organ systems in the human body, each with its own specific functions. One example is digestive system, which
is made up of many organs that work together to digest and absorb nutrients from food. While most organ systems
control a few specific physiological processes, some processes are more complex and require multiple organ systems to
work together. For example, blood pressure is controlled by a combination of the renal system (kidneys), the circulatory
system, and the nervous system.
Levels of Organization in Animals: An organism contains organ systems made up of organs that consist of tissues, which
are in turn made up of cells.
Introduction
• Human Anatomy: Deals with the structure of the human body and the relationship among the structures
• Physiology: Deals with body functions
Scope
Helps us to learn about the structure and functions of human body and the inter relationship
Parameters of normal body health and factors affecting normal body processes can be known
Forms the basis for proper diagnosis of a disease and its effective treatment
Anatomical and Physiological concepts help in efficient surgeries and understanding the pathology of diseases
Basis for advanced scientific studies and serves as a gateway to get into health related careers
Helps in successful maintenance of community and individual health
Subspecialties of Anatomy
Embryology • First 8 weeks of development
Developmental Biology • From fertilization of an egg to death
Cell Biology • Cellular structure and functions
Histology • Microscopic structure of tissues
Surface anatomy • Surface markings of the body
Gross anatomy • Structures – Without the use of microscope
Systemic anatomy • Structures – Specific systems
Regional anatomy • Specific regions of the body
Radiographic anatomy • Structures – Visualized with X – rays
Pathological anatomy • Structural changes with disease
Neurophysiology • Functional properties of nerve cells
Endocrinology • Hormones and their control
Cardiovascular Physiology • Functions of heart and blood vessels
Immunology • Defense against disease causing organisms
Respiratory Physiology • Functions of air passageways and lungs
Renal Physiology • Functions of kidneys
Exercise Physiology • Muscular activities – Changes
Pathophysiology • Functional changes - Disease and aging
, Levels of Organization
Living organisms are made up of four levels of organization: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Order the levels of
organization for living organisms
Key Points
Cells are the most basic unit of life at the smallest level of organization.
Cells can be prokaryotic (without nucleus) or eukaroyotic (with nucleus).
The four categories of tissues are connective, muscles, epithelial, and nervous tissues.
Organs are made of different types of tissues and perform complex functions. They can be hollow or solid.
Organ systems are groups of organs that perform similar functions or perform functions together.
Many physiological functions are carried out by multiple organ systems working in tandem.
Key Terms
Cell: The smallest unit of life capable of independent reproduction. Generally contains nucleic acid, cytoplasm, a cell
membrane, and many other proteins and structures.
Organ: A structure made of different tissues that work together to perform physiological functions.
Organ system: A group of organs and tissues that work together to perform specific functions.
Tissues: A group of similar cells with the same origin that work together to perform the same function.
EXAMPLES
Using the circulatory system as an example, a cell in this system is a red blood cell, the heart’s cardiac muscle is a tissue,
an organ is the heart itself, and the organ system is the circulatory system.
An organism is made up of four levels of organization: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. These levels reduce
complex anatomical structures into groups; this organization makes the components easier to understand.
Level 1: Cells
The first and most basic level of organization is the cellular level. A cell is the basic unit of life and the smallest unit
capable of reproduction. While cells vary greatly in their structure and function based on the type of organism, all cells
have a few things in common. Cells are made up of organic molecules, contain nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA), are
filled with fluid called cytoplasm, and have a membrane made out of lipids. Cells also contain many structures within the
cytoplasm called organelles, which perform various cellular functions.
Cells may be prokaryotic (without a nucleus) in bacteria and archaea (single-celled organisms), or eukaryotic (with
nucleus-enclosing DNA) in plants, animals, protists, and fungi. In humans, most cells combine to form tissues, but some
cells are found independent of solid tissues and have their own functions. A red blood cell found circulating in the
bloodstream carrying oxygen throughout the human body is an example of an independent cell.
Level 2: Tissues
Tissues are a group of similar cells of the same origin that carry out a specific function together. Humans have four
different types of basic tissues. Connective tissues such as bone tissue are made up of fibrous cells and give shape and
structure to organs. Muscle tissue is made up of cells that can contract together and allow animals to move. Epithelial
tissues make up the outer layers of organs, such as the skin or the outer layer of the stomach. Nervous tissue is made of
, specialized cells that transmit information through electrochemical impulses, such as the tissue of nerves, the spinal
cord, and the brain.
Level 3: Organs
An organ is a structure made up of different tissues that perform specific bodily functions. Most organs contain tissues
such as parenchyma (used to perform the organ functions), stroma (connective tissue specific to organs) and epithelial.
Organs may be solid or hollow, and vary considerably in size and complexity. The heart, lungs, and brain are all examples
of organs.
Level 4: Organ Systems
An organ system is a collection of organs that that work together to perform a similar function. There are eleven
different organ systems in the human body, each with its own specific functions. One example is digestive system, which
is made up of many organs that work together to digest and absorb nutrients from food. While most organ systems
control a few specific physiological processes, some processes are more complex and require multiple organ systems to
work together. For example, blood pressure is controlled by a combination of the renal system (kidneys), the circulatory
system, and the nervous system.
Levels of Organization in Animals: An organism contains organ systems made up of organs that consist of tissues, which
are in turn made up of cells.
