Word count: 248 (abstract), 2188 (intro and discussion), 141 characters (title)
Music induces a higher heart rate and metabolic rate than control (without music) during dynamic
exercise but not static exercise in humans.
Abstract
The effects of music on exercise physiology is a largely unknown and controversial field. Some work
advocates erogenicity, while others find no effects at all. This study conducted 4 experiments with
university students. The first establishes the preference for music during exercise via Poll
Everywhere survey (n=88). Second, participants (n=22) measured their change in heart rate (HR) via
personal devices in response to both calming and upbeat music. Third and fourth experiments
determined the physiological responses of 5-minute 65°/75° static wall-sit and 10-minute dynamic
cycling at personalised weight/fitness resistance (respectively), and if these responses were affected
by music (n=17). These participants serially underwent static then dynamic exercises in consecutive
weeks under both randomised control and music conditions using a pneumotachometer, blood
pressure cuff, ECG and perceived exertion scale to find: mean arterial pressure (MAP), HR, metabolic
rate (MR), minute ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory frequency, heart rate variability and
perceived exertion. The results indicated a dominant preference for exercise with music, as well as
an increased HR for upbeat music (p<0.001) and decreased during calm music (p<0.001). The
physiological responses were generally consistent with literature, demonstrating increased HR and
MAP for both static (p<0.0001, p<0.0001) and dynamic (p<0.0001, p<0.0001) exercise. Music was
shown to induce no significant changes in the measured parameters for static exercise (p>0.05) but
found increased HR (p=0.0261) and MR (p=0.0378) for dynamic exercise. In conclusion, this study
potentially suggests music may improve some aspects of dynamic exercise performance which
advantages athletes and widely public health.
1. Introduction
Exercise physiology research is becoming increasingly relevant as society trends toward sedentary
lifestyles and higher rates of overweightness and obesity (Goss, 2022). The mechanisms of exercise
physiology have been thoroughly studied with still more avenues to be explored. While the
cardiorespiratory responses to exercise have been extensively reviewed, the ergogenic effects of
music are less clear in the literature (Karow et al., 2020; Terry et al., 2020). Regular exercise exerts
innumerable benefits on mental and physical health, and studies indicate music can potentially
advantage exercise output (Terry et al., 2020). This has been reported in non-athletes and athletes
alike in both dynamic and static fields under various conditions (Rasteiro et al., 2020; Terry et al.,
2020).
1.1. Dynamic and Static Exercise
Static (isometric) exercise refer to anerobic contractions (Zmijewski et al., 2020). Isometric
contractions increase muscle tension and constrict blood vessels, causing a marked increase in mean
atrial pressure (MAP) and blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic), while only causes small
increases to heart rate (HR) and cardiac output (CO) in the body (Mitchell & Wildenthal, 1974).
,Dynamic (isotonic) exercise involves aerobic contractions (Zmijewski et al., 2020). This tends to
increase CO, HR and stroke volume (SV), with little increase in MAP and systolic pressure with
diastolic remains relatively stable (Seed et al., 2019).
The mechanism which initiates the cardiovascular responses to static exercise are not clearly
identified. HR and CO are strongly related to the degree and duration of exertion in static exercise
(Seed et al., 2019). Evidence suggests that the determining factor is related to the percentage of
maximal contraction used by the particular muscle group (Seed et al., 2019). To illustrate, blood
pressure rises to a similar extent under 20% of hand grip and under 20% of thigh muscles. Moreover,
with strong contractions (>15% max contraction), CO, HR and blood pressure will continue to rise
until the muscle fatigue prohibits further contraction (Seed et al., 2019). As mentioned, dynamic
exercise is aerobic and hence pertains to increased metabolic demand from skeletal muscle. This
demand can only be met by increased blood flow and oxygen consumption, initialising a significant
increase in CO (Seed et al., 2019). Total peripheral resistance (TPR) is found to decrease to further
augment blood flow in skeletal muscle vasculature (Kaur & Mann, 2016). CO, HR, and oxygen
consumption increase linearly with dynamic exercise intensity (Kaur & Mann, 2016). Reflecting their
relative changes in HR, static exercise is found to have higher heart rate variability (HRV) than
dynamic exercise which has lower HRV (Weippert et al., 2013). This implies input from both
autonomic branches in static exercise, while a higher dominance for sympathetic in dynamic exercise
(Weippert et al., 2013).
Respiratory responses to exercise are well documented. Research demonstrates an increased
respiratory frequency (Rf) and tidal volume (Vt), corresponding to an increased minute ventilation
((Ve) Mazzeo & Liccardo, 2019). This is modulated through low oxygen induced chemoreceptor
activation of the central nervous system (Mazzeo & Liccardo, 2019). It has also been established
that, in response to exercise, increased oxygen consumption is indicative of increased metabolism
(Mazzeo & Liccardo, 2019). Increased oxygen consumption (and metabolic rate (MR)) is also
correlated with many cardiovascular parameters like HR and CO (Green, 2011). Exercise increases
the energy demands from working muscles which accelerates metabolism during and sometimes
hours after exercise (Knab et al., 2011). This also means higher number of calories used during
exercise (Knab et al., 2011). The differing expected respiratory responses between these modes of
exercise is less discussed in the literature. Some research indicates a greater increase in oxygen
consumption (and thus Vt and Ve) during dynamic exercise than in static (nelson et al., 1974), while
some show no difference at all between the two (Arimoto et al., 2005).
The aims of this study are to verify that dynamic and static exercise within this protocol will induce
cardiorespiratory changes in human physiology. It is hypothesised that the physiological responses
to exercise in humans will generally be consistent with the literature in that there will be a greater
MAP for both static and dynamic exercises compared to baseline due to a rise in HR. Moreover, it is
estimated that Ve will increase for both modes of exercise, due to the rise in Vt and Rf induced by
the onset of exercise.
1.2. Music and Exercise
Music is fundamentally constructed into culture. It is a tool used to promote focus, reduce anxiety,
improve mood, and encourage rhythmic movement (Terry et al., 2020)). All of which are desirable
qualities during exercise. This is suggested to be useful to establish a pre-competition mindset to
allow improved performance as well as during moderate intensity exercise (Karageorghis, 2020). As
, such, the ergogenic effects of music have been a field of interest. Music has demonstrated to reduce
perceived exertion (Hines, 2021) measured via the perceived exertion scale (see methods) but
generally the research limits this effect to higher intensity non-aerobic exercise (Karageorghis, 2020).
In contrast to previous work, this study seeks to identify this effect for both static and dynamic
exercise. Lower perceived exertion has been found on occasion to translate to increased exercise
output in terms of endurance, strength, or speed (Karageorghis, 2020). There are a variety of
theorised and unknown mechanisms at play underlying the interaction between music and the body.
For instance, music has theorised to lower perceived exertion by acting as a distraction to allow the
participant to ‘disassociate’ from the physical effects (Stork et al., 2015). This involves sensory
interference (from music) with physiological signals from exercise (Stork et al., 2015), producing a
lower perceived exertion and perhaps higher physical output. More specifically, studies have found
the effects of music relating to its style in that increased tempo (more upbeat) tended to increase
motivation and activity more than slower or calmer music (Clark et al., 2015; Hines, 2021). However,
the literature is still controversial with much research indicating no significant improvement in
performance with music (Castañeda-Babarro et al., 2020; Hines, 2021) regardless of music tempo.
This study aims to establish the preference for music during exercise, as well as observe the
potential effects by measuring the responding change in HR. It is hypothesised that upbeat music
will increase HR while calming music decrease HR in humans.
Following on, this work intends to investigate the effect of music on exercise performance by
measuring a wide range of cardiorespiratory exercise parameters with and without music. it is
hypothesised that music will produce a higher MR in humans than control (without music) due to an
increase in HR during dynamic and static exercise.
2. Methods
2.1. Ethics
All experimental procedures underwent submission, review, and approval by the Human Ethics
Committee of the University of Melbourne (Ethics ID 1853514.1). Participants were given
explanations of the relevant risks prior to experimentation. After which, informed verbal consent
was obtained from all subjects.
2.2. Participants
All participants in these 4 experiments (see protocol section) are students from the University of
Melbourne PHYS20009 Research-Based Physiology semester 1 2022 cohort.
Experiment 1-2:
88 random student human volunteers (non-descript age/weight/height) participated in experiment
1. Experiment 2 participants comprised of 22 (15 female, 7 male) healthy (no cardiorespiratory
conditions that could influence the results) human subjects (M=169.20± 9.7cm, M= 62.23 ± 10.59kg)
with similar age (20.77±1.90 years).
Experiment 3-4
17 healthy human subjects (6 male (M=72.84 ± 6.50 kg, M=178.23 ± 7.53cm), 11 female (M=59.70 ±
6.36kg, M=163.12 ± 5.51cm)) of similar age (M=20.76 ± 1.68 years) with a diverse range of exercise
backgrounds completed this study (see table 1). Healthy in this study is considered as: no history of
Music induces a higher heart rate and metabolic rate than control (without music) during dynamic
exercise but not static exercise in humans.
Abstract
The effects of music on exercise physiology is a largely unknown and controversial field. Some work
advocates erogenicity, while others find no effects at all. This study conducted 4 experiments with
university students. The first establishes the preference for music during exercise via Poll
Everywhere survey (n=88). Second, participants (n=22) measured their change in heart rate (HR) via
personal devices in response to both calming and upbeat music. Third and fourth experiments
determined the physiological responses of 5-minute 65°/75° static wall-sit and 10-minute dynamic
cycling at personalised weight/fitness resistance (respectively), and if these responses were affected
by music (n=17). These participants serially underwent static then dynamic exercises in consecutive
weeks under both randomised control and music conditions using a pneumotachometer, blood
pressure cuff, ECG and perceived exertion scale to find: mean arterial pressure (MAP), HR, metabolic
rate (MR), minute ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory frequency, heart rate variability and
perceived exertion. The results indicated a dominant preference for exercise with music, as well as
an increased HR for upbeat music (p<0.001) and decreased during calm music (p<0.001). The
physiological responses were generally consistent with literature, demonstrating increased HR and
MAP for both static (p<0.0001, p<0.0001) and dynamic (p<0.0001, p<0.0001) exercise. Music was
shown to induce no significant changes in the measured parameters for static exercise (p>0.05) but
found increased HR (p=0.0261) and MR (p=0.0378) for dynamic exercise. In conclusion, this study
potentially suggests music may improve some aspects of dynamic exercise performance which
advantages athletes and widely public health.
1. Introduction
Exercise physiology research is becoming increasingly relevant as society trends toward sedentary
lifestyles and higher rates of overweightness and obesity (Goss, 2022). The mechanisms of exercise
physiology have been thoroughly studied with still more avenues to be explored. While the
cardiorespiratory responses to exercise have been extensively reviewed, the ergogenic effects of
music are less clear in the literature (Karow et al., 2020; Terry et al., 2020). Regular exercise exerts
innumerable benefits on mental and physical health, and studies indicate music can potentially
advantage exercise output (Terry et al., 2020). This has been reported in non-athletes and athletes
alike in both dynamic and static fields under various conditions (Rasteiro et al., 2020; Terry et al.,
2020).
1.1. Dynamic and Static Exercise
Static (isometric) exercise refer to anerobic contractions (Zmijewski et al., 2020). Isometric
contractions increase muscle tension and constrict blood vessels, causing a marked increase in mean
atrial pressure (MAP) and blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic), while only causes small
increases to heart rate (HR) and cardiac output (CO) in the body (Mitchell & Wildenthal, 1974).
,Dynamic (isotonic) exercise involves aerobic contractions (Zmijewski et al., 2020). This tends to
increase CO, HR and stroke volume (SV), with little increase in MAP and systolic pressure with
diastolic remains relatively stable (Seed et al., 2019).
The mechanism which initiates the cardiovascular responses to static exercise are not clearly
identified. HR and CO are strongly related to the degree and duration of exertion in static exercise
(Seed et al., 2019). Evidence suggests that the determining factor is related to the percentage of
maximal contraction used by the particular muscle group (Seed et al., 2019). To illustrate, blood
pressure rises to a similar extent under 20% of hand grip and under 20% of thigh muscles. Moreover,
with strong contractions (>15% max contraction), CO, HR and blood pressure will continue to rise
until the muscle fatigue prohibits further contraction (Seed et al., 2019). As mentioned, dynamic
exercise is aerobic and hence pertains to increased metabolic demand from skeletal muscle. This
demand can only be met by increased blood flow and oxygen consumption, initialising a significant
increase in CO (Seed et al., 2019). Total peripheral resistance (TPR) is found to decrease to further
augment blood flow in skeletal muscle vasculature (Kaur & Mann, 2016). CO, HR, and oxygen
consumption increase linearly with dynamic exercise intensity (Kaur & Mann, 2016). Reflecting their
relative changes in HR, static exercise is found to have higher heart rate variability (HRV) than
dynamic exercise which has lower HRV (Weippert et al., 2013). This implies input from both
autonomic branches in static exercise, while a higher dominance for sympathetic in dynamic exercise
(Weippert et al., 2013).
Respiratory responses to exercise are well documented. Research demonstrates an increased
respiratory frequency (Rf) and tidal volume (Vt), corresponding to an increased minute ventilation
((Ve) Mazzeo & Liccardo, 2019). This is modulated through low oxygen induced chemoreceptor
activation of the central nervous system (Mazzeo & Liccardo, 2019). It has also been established
that, in response to exercise, increased oxygen consumption is indicative of increased metabolism
(Mazzeo & Liccardo, 2019). Increased oxygen consumption (and metabolic rate (MR)) is also
correlated with many cardiovascular parameters like HR and CO (Green, 2011). Exercise increases
the energy demands from working muscles which accelerates metabolism during and sometimes
hours after exercise (Knab et al., 2011). This also means higher number of calories used during
exercise (Knab et al., 2011). The differing expected respiratory responses between these modes of
exercise is less discussed in the literature. Some research indicates a greater increase in oxygen
consumption (and thus Vt and Ve) during dynamic exercise than in static (nelson et al., 1974), while
some show no difference at all between the two (Arimoto et al., 2005).
The aims of this study are to verify that dynamic and static exercise within this protocol will induce
cardiorespiratory changes in human physiology. It is hypothesised that the physiological responses
to exercise in humans will generally be consistent with the literature in that there will be a greater
MAP for both static and dynamic exercises compared to baseline due to a rise in HR. Moreover, it is
estimated that Ve will increase for both modes of exercise, due to the rise in Vt and Rf induced by
the onset of exercise.
1.2. Music and Exercise
Music is fundamentally constructed into culture. It is a tool used to promote focus, reduce anxiety,
improve mood, and encourage rhythmic movement (Terry et al., 2020)). All of which are desirable
qualities during exercise. This is suggested to be useful to establish a pre-competition mindset to
allow improved performance as well as during moderate intensity exercise (Karageorghis, 2020). As
, such, the ergogenic effects of music have been a field of interest. Music has demonstrated to reduce
perceived exertion (Hines, 2021) measured via the perceived exertion scale (see methods) but
generally the research limits this effect to higher intensity non-aerobic exercise (Karageorghis, 2020).
In contrast to previous work, this study seeks to identify this effect for both static and dynamic
exercise. Lower perceived exertion has been found on occasion to translate to increased exercise
output in terms of endurance, strength, or speed (Karageorghis, 2020). There are a variety of
theorised and unknown mechanisms at play underlying the interaction between music and the body.
For instance, music has theorised to lower perceived exertion by acting as a distraction to allow the
participant to ‘disassociate’ from the physical effects (Stork et al., 2015). This involves sensory
interference (from music) with physiological signals from exercise (Stork et al., 2015), producing a
lower perceived exertion and perhaps higher physical output. More specifically, studies have found
the effects of music relating to its style in that increased tempo (more upbeat) tended to increase
motivation and activity more than slower or calmer music (Clark et al., 2015; Hines, 2021). However,
the literature is still controversial with much research indicating no significant improvement in
performance with music (Castañeda-Babarro et al., 2020; Hines, 2021) regardless of music tempo.
This study aims to establish the preference for music during exercise, as well as observe the
potential effects by measuring the responding change in HR. It is hypothesised that upbeat music
will increase HR while calming music decrease HR in humans.
Following on, this work intends to investigate the effect of music on exercise performance by
measuring a wide range of cardiorespiratory exercise parameters with and without music. it is
hypothesised that music will produce a higher MR in humans than control (without music) due to an
increase in HR during dynamic and static exercise.
2. Methods
2.1. Ethics
All experimental procedures underwent submission, review, and approval by the Human Ethics
Committee of the University of Melbourne (Ethics ID 1853514.1). Participants were given
explanations of the relevant risks prior to experimentation. After which, informed verbal consent
was obtained from all subjects.
2.2. Participants
All participants in these 4 experiments (see protocol section) are students from the University of
Melbourne PHYS20009 Research-Based Physiology semester 1 2022 cohort.
Experiment 1-2:
88 random student human volunteers (non-descript age/weight/height) participated in experiment
1. Experiment 2 participants comprised of 22 (15 female, 7 male) healthy (no cardiorespiratory
conditions that could influence the results) human subjects (M=169.20± 9.7cm, M= 62.23 ± 10.59kg)
with similar age (20.77±1.90 years).
Experiment 3-4
17 healthy human subjects (6 male (M=72.84 ± 6.50 kg, M=178.23 ± 7.53cm), 11 female (M=59.70 ±
6.36kg, M=163.12 ± 5.51cm)) of similar age (M=20.76 ± 1.68 years) with a diverse range of exercise
backgrounds completed this study (see table 1). Healthy in this study is considered as: no history of
