Chapter 1 “Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology“
- Psychological research was developed in a relatively small selection of
countries (US, Canada, France, Germany)
- Cross-cultural psychology seeks to identify and comprehend both the
similarities and differences of people’s behaviors and experiences.
- Cross-cultural psychology is the critical and comparative study of
cultural effects on human psychology. Any study draws its conclusions from
at least 2 samples that represent at least 2 cultural groups. it’s
inseparable from critical thinking (because of comparison)
- It studies the links between cultural norms and behavior and the ways in
which particular human activities are influenced by different social and
cultural forces (Segall et al., 1990).
- Cultural-psychology seeks to discover meaningful links between a
culture and the psychology of individuals living in this culture human
behavior is only meaningful when viewed in the sociocultural context in
which it occurs (Segall et al., 1990).
- Culture is a set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large
group of people (no society is culturally homogeneous!!)
From one generation to the next
Attitudes: beliefs (political, religious, moral..), values,
opinions, stereotypes..
Behaviors: variety of norms, roles, traditions, fashions,
habits..
Symbols: represent things or ideas (material object, sound,
building)
Explicit and implicit characteristics!
o Explicit characteristics are the set of observable acts regularly found
in this culture (eg. wearing particular clothes)
o Implicit characteristics refer to the organizing principles that are
inferred to lie behind these regularities on the basis of consistent
pattern of explicit culture (eg. particular behavioral expectations in a
standard situation)
- Race is a group of people distinguished by certain similar and genetically
transmitted physical characteristics.
o Levin (1995): differences are also evolutionary (everything is
average)
o Term to describe a population that differs in distinguishable physical
qualities.
o Can be viewed as a social category
- Ethnicity indicated cultural heritage, the experience shared by people
who have a common ancestral origin, language and traditions
- Nation is a group of a people who share common geographical origin,
history an independent state recognized by other countries
- Religious affiliation indicates an individual’s acceptance of knowledge,
beliefs, and practices related to a particular faith
o 2/3 of Muslims live in Asia
o Europa, North America, and South America are predominantly
Christian
- Knowledge is information that has a purpose or use.
o Scientific knowledge: systematic observation, measurement, and
evaluation of a wide range of psychological phenomena scientific
views change
, o Psychological knowledge: represents a collection of popular
beliefs and assumptions, often called folk theories “everyday
psychology” that is formulated by the people for the people
General assumptions: eg. ability of dreams to predict the
future
Specific assumptions: eg. lucky charm
Is in constant competition with scientific knowledge (sometimes
supportive, manly challenging
o Ideological (value-based): stems from cohesive and stable
perceptions about the world, the nature of good and evil, right and
wrong behavior, and the purpose of human life different than folk
knowledge ‘cause it’s grounded on a set of unwavering and
articulated principles. Tends to be dogmatic.
o Legal knowledge: exists in the form of laws and other
prescriptions established by authorities, includes rules and principles
that can be used by authorities and ppl themselves to pass
judgments about psychological aspects of human behavior
provides grounds for important decisions about life & death,
marriage..
Shiraev (2011): it changes together with continuous transitions
taking place in society
The four types are deeply interconnected
Cultural Traditionalism
Traditional Cultures Nontraditional Cultures
Most social roles are prescribed to Most social roles are achieved by
individuals. individuals
In evaluations of individual behavior, In evaluations of individual behavior,
the emphasis is placed on custom and the emphasis is placed on individual
routine choice
There is a clear distinction between The distinction between good and evil
good and evil in human behavior in human behavior is relative
Truth is not debatable; it is established Truth is revealed through the
and does not change competition of ideas
Individuals’ choices are restricted to Individuals’ choices are not strongly
the boundaries of social prescriptions. restricted to the boundaries of social
Eg premarital, extramarital and prescriptions. Eg premarital,
homosexual behavior are restricted extramarital and homosexual behavior
are generally tolerated
Empirical examination of culture
- Power distance is the extent to which the members of a society accept
that power is institutions and organizations is distributed unequally
(Hofstede, 1980)
o in “high-power distance” (hierarchical) cultures ppl generally accept
inequality between the leaders and the led, the elite and the
common, the managers and the subordinates ppl tend to assign
stricter behavior rules associated with social status eg Japan and
South Korea (Matsumoto, 2007)
, o in “low-power distance” (egalitarian) cultures ppl are less
preoccupied with the behavioral rules attached to the status eg
United States
o on individual level: ↑power distance may be rooted in an
individual’s social dominance orientation, a measure of a person’s
preference for hierarchy within any given social system (Sidanius &
Pratto, 2001)
- Uncertainty orientation: common ways used by people to handle
uncertainty in their daily situations and general lives
- Uncertainty avoidance: the degree to which the members of a society
feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity
Ppl in cultures ↑ uncertainty avoidance tend to support
beliefs promising certainty & to maintain institutions
protecting conformity
Ppl in cultures ↓ uncertainty avoidance are apt to maintain
unpredictability, creativity, new forms of thinking and
behavior
Ppl who are certainty oriented tend to refer to rules, customs,
or opinions of other ppl (Sorrentino et al., 2008)
Eastern more uncertainty avoidant than Western (Hofstede,
1980)
Collectivism Individualism
Behavior based on concerns for Complex behavior based on
other and care for traditions and concern for oneself and one’s
values immediate family as opposed to
concern for other groups or society
to which one belongs
Group norms are likely to direct
individual behavior
High in the Asian countries, High in Western countries
traditional societies, and former (Triandis, 1996)
communist countries
Vertical collectivists India Vertical individualists USA
Horizontal collectivists Sweden
Expect that others support them Don’t expect that others support
back them
Ppl tend to seek social cues or Ppl rely on their emotions when
other ppl’s responses to make a they asses their own happiness
judgment (She et al., 2008)
o Can be studied on the level of “strong ties” (family members and
close friends) and “weak ties” (Granovetter, 1973)
o Triandis (1996): horizontal and vertical dimensions of collectivism
and individualism
Vertical: ppl refer to each other from power and achievement
standpoints, employees & employers / leader & led
Horizontal: benevolence & equality
o National examples vary: collectivism in the US differs from
collectivism from Japan
o Independence: attending to their individual selves, expressing
their unique inner attributes (eg Germans and British ppl)
o Interdependence: fitting in, maintaining harmonious relationship
with ppl of higher-, lower-, or equal-status levels (Markus &
Kitayama, 1991)
- Psychological research was developed in a relatively small selection of
countries (US, Canada, France, Germany)
- Cross-cultural psychology seeks to identify and comprehend both the
similarities and differences of people’s behaviors and experiences.
- Cross-cultural psychology is the critical and comparative study of
cultural effects on human psychology. Any study draws its conclusions from
at least 2 samples that represent at least 2 cultural groups. it’s
inseparable from critical thinking (because of comparison)
- It studies the links between cultural norms and behavior and the ways in
which particular human activities are influenced by different social and
cultural forces (Segall et al., 1990).
- Cultural-psychology seeks to discover meaningful links between a
culture and the psychology of individuals living in this culture human
behavior is only meaningful when viewed in the sociocultural context in
which it occurs (Segall et al., 1990).
- Culture is a set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large
group of people (no society is culturally homogeneous!!)
From one generation to the next
Attitudes: beliefs (political, religious, moral..), values,
opinions, stereotypes..
Behaviors: variety of norms, roles, traditions, fashions,
habits..
Symbols: represent things or ideas (material object, sound,
building)
Explicit and implicit characteristics!
o Explicit characteristics are the set of observable acts regularly found
in this culture (eg. wearing particular clothes)
o Implicit characteristics refer to the organizing principles that are
inferred to lie behind these regularities on the basis of consistent
pattern of explicit culture (eg. particular behavioral expectations in a
standard situation)
- Race is a group of people distinguished by certain similar and genetically
transmitted physical characteristics.
o Levin (1995): differences are also evolutionary (everything is
average)
o Term to describe a population that differs in distinguishable physical
qualities.
o Can be viewed as a social category
- Ethnicity indicated cultural heritage, the experience shared by people
who have a common ancestral origin, language and traditions
- Nation is a group of a people who share common geographical origin,
history an independent state recognized by other countries
- Religious affiliation indicates an individual’s acceptance of knowledge,
beliefs, and practices related to a particular faith
o 2/3 of Muslims live in Asia
o Europa, North America, and South America are predominantly
Christian
- Knowledge is information that has a purpose or use.
o Scientific knowledge: systematic observation, measurement, and
evaluation of a wide range of psychological phenomena scientific
views change
, o Psychological knowledge: represents a collection of popular
beliefs and assumptions, often called folk theories “everyday
psychology” that is formulated by the people for the people
General assumptions: eg. ability of dreams to predict the
future
Specific assumptions: eg. lucky charm
Is in constant competition with scientific knowledge (sometimes
supportive, manly challenging
o Ideological (value-based): stems from cohesive and stable
perceptions about the world, the nature of good and evil, right and
wrong behavior, and the purpose of human life different than folk
knowledge ‘cause it’s grounded on a set of unwavering and
articulated principles. Tends to be dogmatic.
o Legal knowledge: exists in the form of laws and other
prescriptions established by authorities, includes rules and principles
that can be used by authorities and ppl themselves to pass
judgments about psychological aspects of human behavior
provides grounds for important decisions about life & death,
marriage..
Shiraev (2011): it changes together with continuous transitions
taking place in society
The four types are deeply interconnected
Cultural Traditionalism
Traditional Cultures Nontraditional Cultures
Most social roles are prescribed to Most social roles are achieved by
individuals. individuals
In evaluations of individual behavior, In evaluations of individual behavior,
the emphasis is placed on custom and the emphasis is placed on individual
routine choice
There is a clear distinction between The distinction between good and evil
good and evil in human behavior in human behavior is relative
Truth is not debatable; it is established Truth is revealed through the
and does not change competition of ideas
Individuals’ choices are restricted to Individuals’ choices are not strongly
the boundaries of social prescriptions. restricted to the boundaries of social
Eg premarital, extramarital and prescriptions. Eg premarital,
homosexual behavior are restricted extramarital and homosexual behavior
are generally tolerated
Empirical examination of culture
- Power distance is the extent to which the members of a society accept
that power is institutions and organizations is distributed unequally
(Hofstede, 1980)
o in “high-power distance” (hierarchical) cultures ppl generally accept
inequality between the leaders and the led, the elite and the
common, the managers and the subordinates ppl tend to assign
stricter behavior rules associated with social status eg Japan and
South Korea (Matsumoto, 2007)
, o in “low-power distance” (egalitarian) cultures ppl are less
preoccupied with the behavioral rules attached to the status eg
United States
o on individual level: ↑power distance may be rooted in an
individual’s social dominance orientation, a measure of a person’s
preference for hierarchy within any given social system (Sidanius &
Pratto, 2001)
- Uncertainty orientation: common ways used by people to handle
uncertainty in their daily situations and general lives
- Uncertainty avoidance: the degree to which the members of a society
feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity
Ppl in cultures ↑ uncertainty avoidance tend to support
beliefs promising certainty & to maintain institutions
protecting conformity
Ppl in cultures ↓ uncertainty avoidance are apt to maintain
unpredictability, creativity, new forms of thinking and
behavior
Ppl who are certainty oriented tend to refer to rules, customs,
or opinions of other ppl (Sorrentino et al., 2008)
Eastern more uncertainty avoidant than Western (Hofstede,
1980)
Collectivism Individualism
Behavior based on concerns for Complex behavior based on
other and care for traditions and concern for oneself and one’s
values immediate family as opposed to
concern for other groups or society
to which one belongs
Group norms are likely to direct
individual behavior
High in the Asian countries, High in Western countries
traditional societies, and former (Triandis, 1996)
communist countries
Vertical collectivists India Vertical individualists USA
Horizontal collectivists Sweden
Expect that others support them Don’t expect that others support
back them
Ppl tend to seek social cues or Ppl rely on their emotions when
other ppl’s responses to make a they asses their own happiness
judgment (She et al., 2008)
o Can be studied on the level of “strong ties” (family members and
close friends) and “weak ties” (Granovetter, 1973)
o Triandis (1996): horizontal and vertical dimensions of collectivism
and individualism
Vertical: ppl refer to each other from power and achievement
standpoints, employees & employers / leader & led
Horizontal: benevolence & equality
o National examples vary: collectivism in the US differs from
collectivism from Japan
o Independence: attending to their individual selves, expressing
their unique inner attributes (eg Germans and British ppl)
o Interdependence: fitting in, maintaining harmonious relationship
with ppl of higher-, lower-, or equal-status levels (Markus &
Kitayama, 1991)
